Сочинение

• 481. Climate and Weather in Great Britain (Климат и погода в Великобритании)
  География

• 482. Creon and Antigone: Origins of Conflict through the Concept of Relative Virtues
  Иностранные языки

• 483. Cергей Есенин
  Литература

  Последнее словосочетание невольно вызывает ассоциации с "Песнью о собаке" (1915) с ее пронзительно-щемящей концовкой: "Покатились глаза собачьи Золотыми звездами в снег". В этом стихотворении, как уже отмечалось в практике лучших учителей литературы, усилена работа глаголов: "златятся рогожи в ряд" (поэт каждого заставляет ощутить торжественность происходящего), "ласкала", "струился снежок подталый"; и на фоне этих трогательно-нежных слов грубо-просторечный глагол "поклал", усиливающий угрюмую непреклонность, страшную жестокость в действиях хозяина. Передавая силу материнского чувства, поэт сопровождает глаголы деепричастными оборотами: "до ночи она их ласкала, причесывая языком", "по сугробам она бежала, поспевая (!) за ним бежать", "плелась обратно, слизывая пот с боков",- а вот действия хозяина лишены деепричастий: человек оскорбляет, убивает, не задумываясь, его действия уточнены местоимением "всех" ("семерых всех поклал") и повторяющимся наречием "долго, долго" ("и так долго, долго дрожала воды не замерзшей гладь"). И ужас от свершившегося усиливается двумя метафорами: "звонко глядела" (в исступленной надежде беззвучно кричащая, стонущая материнская душа) и "глухо... покатились глаза собачьи" (надежды больше нет!)..." (23; 102). В данном случае "глаза собачьи" представляются метонимией и прочитываются как "слезы собачьи". Л.Л.Бельская, в чьей книге "Песенное слово" дан прекрасный анализ "Песни о собаке", считает: "Эмоциональная сила заключительных строк создается не патетическими возгласами, а страшным в своей выразительности гиперболическим образом собачьих глаз, вытекших от горя". Поэт делает "нечеловеческую" боль достоянием человеческой души. Литературовед утверждает:

• 484. Cоциальные мотивы в лирике А. Блока
  Литература

  Поэтическое творчество А. Блока одного из величайших поэтов в истории русской лирики было насыщено духом современной ему эпохи, противоречивой, тревожной, пронизанной ощущением близкой катастрофы. Его поэзия стала воплощением духовных исканий русской интеллигенции того времени, разочарованной в вековых идеалах, ненавидящей настоящее, жаждущей обновления. Надо сказать, что герой ранних произведений Блока, к примеру, цикла о Прекрасной Даме, предстает несомненным индивидуалистом, далеким от жизни общества. Возвышенная любовь к идеальной деве не оставляет места для политических страстей. Но затем, сформировавшись как поэт, Блок открыл для себя мир внешний, мир “бурь и тревог” своего времени ибо настоящий художник не может стоять в стороне от жизни, не может быть вне времени и вне пространства.

• 485. Cравнительный анализ сюжетной и образной структуры в "Пейзаже, нарисованном чаем" Милорада Павича и произведениях Н. В. Гоголя
  Литература

  После того, как Афанасий "что-то шепнул Обрену Опсенице. Последний облизнул ногти, легонько ударил своей тростью по кончику разинского ботинка и дал деньги. Из этой-то неожиданно возобновлённой дружбы, из имевшейся наличности, из их сотрудничества и вырос постепенно величественный калифорнийский трест архитектора Разина "ABC Engineering & Pharmaceuticals""(РДЛК с. 27 -28). В этом отрывке нас привлекает две вещи, а именно: фекальная символика внешности Опсеницы и удар тростью по ботинку Разина в момент заключения сделки. Опсеница ударом трости (субститут посоха, меча) как бы посвящает Свилара, принимая его в ряды служителей Мамоны. Символично прикосновение тростью именно к ботинку Свилара. Этот жест, очевидно, содержит пародию-"перевертыш" на ритуал, например масонского, посвящения (одним из элементов которого является прикосновение к голове или плечу - к "верху", а не к "низу") и , с другой стороны, намёк на "башмак" - Башмачкина, фекальную символику чьего имени "подметил […], если не ошибаюсь, Крученых", - отмечает Вайскопф. Т.о. Опсеница, приобретая портретное сходство с Башмачкиным, даёт деньги (как Акакий Акакиевич - Петровичу) Свилару и благодаря этому меняется с ним местами. Образ Опсеницы поглощает окончательно и черты Чичикова, бывшие у Атанаса (вспомним о схожести историй строителей Павла Ивановича и Обрена, уже отмеченной нами в своё время). Заметим, что детство и юные годы Чичикова, проведённые в нищете, его отличали "прилежанием и опрятностью" и т.п. очень напоминают судьбу Башмачкина. Так что свести эти два образа в один - в начале применительно к Свилару, а затем и к Опсенице - не представляло труда и не вызвало противоречий в тексте. Важно, что в "Шинели", как обратил внимание Вайскопф, также присутствует портретное сближение Акакия Акакиевича и Петровича: "портной "крив" - Башмачкин "несколько даже подслеповат"; у Петровича "рябизна по всему лицу" - Башмачкин "несколько рябоват". Тем самым оба героя одновременно наделяются двойственным статусом" (М.В. с 354). Подобной амбивалентностью обладают почти все герои М. Павича. Также любопытно, что мотив колдовского перевоплощения демона в облик героя (при этом герой наделяется внешностью, ранее принадлежавшей этому демону) присутствует во вставной новелле "Плакида" - истории, которую Афанасий рассказывает себе, "чтобы очистить душу". Знаменательно, что это происходит в момент, когда на пути Свилара появляется носитель (2-й по счёту) образа демона-помощника, сродни Опсенице. Обновлённый Свилар - новоявленный Разин, сменив имя и начав новую жизнь, выехал в Вену, навестил Обрена Опсеницу и заложил основы будущего финансового могущества, а после этого "снова появился" в квартире Витачи, "взял её за руку и увёз сначала в Вену, а потом в Америку"(РДЛК с. 84).

• 486. Das weißrussische Land
  Разное

  Das weißrussische Land liegt im Osten Europas. Ihr Territorium beträgt 207000 Quadratkilometer. Sie grenzt an die Ukraine, an Rußland, an Lettland und Littauen, an Polen. Die Bevölkerung ist etwa 10 Millionen Einwohner. Über 80 Prozent davon sind Belorussen. Zu den größten Städten der Republik gehören Minsk,Gomel, Brest, Mogiljow und andere.

• 487. Democracy in Russia
  Разное

  Russia today is a materialistic society. Sociologists say that a materialistic society is one in which material possessions are important. People are concerned about financial well-being and security or even physical survival. Various hardships, first of all economic, coerced Russians into fighting for survival, caring only about most essential things for life. Such democratic values as, say, inalienable rights are not relevant for discussion among those who do not have money to buy some bread. If someone takes advantage of the right of speech and enjoys it to the full, if this person states his or her disagreement with the bosss point of work on some subject, he or she will be fired immediately and join the army of the unemployed. The unemployed in Russia differ from those in the USA who can live off welfare and sometimes be quite satisfied with their actual status. In Russia unemployment is synonymous with poverty and hopelessness.

• 488. Dickens - David Copperfield
  Разное

  Six months before David Copperfieldsbirth, his father died. His aunt, Betsey Trotwood, arrives in Blunderstone onthe night he is born, but immediately gives up all interest in him, as she hadfirmly expected a girl. With his gentle mother Clara Copperfield and his belovednurse Peggotty, Davids early childhood is very happy. Peggotty takes himon holiday to Yarmouth, where they stay in an old boat-house with her brother MrPeggotty, his nephew Ham and pretty niece little Emily, and the forlorn widowMrs Gummidge. Davids happiness ends when he returns home to find hismother has re-married. Her new husband, Murdstone, and his sister Jane, driveClara to an early grave with their cruelfirmness. David is sent away to Salem House, a schoolrun by a harsh, cruel headmaster, Creakle. He makes two friends there: theapparently charming Steerforth and the agreeable Traddles. But after hismothers death, he is sent instead to work in Murdstones Londonwarehouse, where he miserably experiences poverty,despair, and loneliness. Helodges with the family of the extraordinary Mr Micawber, whose continualfinancial difficulties lead to his eventual imprisonment fordebt. David decides to run away to his Aunt Betseyin Dover. Penniless and alone, he has to walk all the way. He finds her caringfor Mr Dick, a pleasant simpleton. She is as eccentric as ever, but takes himin, as he had hoped, and dismisses the Murdstones from their responsibility forhim. She also arranges for him to live in Canterbury with her lawyer, MrWickfield, and his lovely daughter, Agnes, and to attend old DoctorStrongs excellent school there. In Canterbury, David also meetsWickfields sinister clerk, the umble Uriah Heep, and renewshis friendship with the Micawbers when they happen to pass throughtown. David grows up, successfully completes hiseducation, and is to spend some time looking about for a career.Passing through London, he happens to meet Steerforth, who takes him tovisithis mother and her ardent companion, Rosa Dartle. David was on his way torevisit Mr Peggotty and his household at Yarmouth, and now takes Steerforth withhim. They find little Emily grown up and engaged to Ham. Peggotty has marriedBarkis the carrier: their courtship was aided by David occasionally acting asBarkiss messenger to Peggotty. David is articled to Spenlow and Jorkins asan apprentice proctor in Doctors Commons. He takes rooms in London, wherehe entertains Steerforth, drunkenly; and later invites the Micawbers, stillshort of money, and their new lodger, Traddles. David meets Dora Spenlow andinstantly falls desperately in love with her. After her birthday picnic, theyare secretly engaged. David returns brieяy to Yarmouth, as Barkisis dying. While he is there, Mr Peggottys household is most unhappilyupset by Emilys running away with Steerforth. Mr Peggotty resolves tofollow her, find her, and bring her back. He meets, unsatisfactorily, proud MrsSteerforth and the infuriated Rosa Dartle. Aunt Betsey arrives in London with Mr Dick,and announces that she is ruined. David starts work with great determination, asa part- time secretary to Doctor Strong. At the same time he teaches himselfshorthand. After many struggles, he becomes a parliamentary reporter. Mr Spenlowhas learned of his daughters secret engagement, through her companion,Jane Murdstone, and tells Davidhe forbids it. But he dies suddenly that night,and Dora moves to live with her aunts. David is allowed to visit her there.Eventually his hopes are fulfilled and he and Dora are married. Previously, Uriah Heep appeared in London,seeming to have Mr Wickfield in his power, and still hoping, as he has toldDavid, to marry Agnes. After Davids marriage, he returns, and, makesunpleasant suggestions concerning Doctor Strongs young wife Annie and heridle cousinJack Maldon. Doctor Strong denies these, but a shadow falls betweenhim and Annie. With the sensitive help of Mr Dick, the truth is revealed, andthey are reconciled. From Steerforths servant, Littimer,David hears that Steerforth has abandoned Emily. He passes this news on to MrPeggotty, who occasionally returns to London during his quest for his niece.Together, they find her unfortunate friend, Martha Endell, and ask her to helpthem. When Emily returns to London, Martha finds her, and at last sheand MrPeggotty are happily re-united. They decide to emigrate to Australia, takingwith them Mrs Gummidge and, eventually, Martha as well. For some time, Micawber, now working as aclerk for Heep, behaves strangely. Then he calls David and his aunt toCanterbury, and, with his usual great eloquence, accuses Heep of many frauds andcrimes against Mr Wickfield. With the help of the reliable Traddles, Uriah Heepis crushed. Micawber is lent money to ease his financial difficulties; he andhis family accept the suggestion of emigrating. David has become a successful author, andgives up his job as a parliamentary reporter. His marriage to Dora, thoughhappy, is marred because she is so completely impractical. Realising that it isselfish totry to form her mind, David is reconciled and loves herfor herself, but still feels a sense of loss and incompleteness in theirrelationship. Dora loses a child and is afterwards very ill. Her illnesscontinues: she weakens slowly, and dies. David decides to take his grief abroad. Butfirst, he takes a message from Emily to Ham in Yarmouth. He arrives there duringa great storm, and witnesses the drowning of Steerforth in a wreck just off thecoast, and the death of Ham in attempting to rescue him. He breaks the news toMrs Steerforth and Rosa Dartle, but conceals it from Mr Peggotty and Emily. Hesays farewell to them, and to the Micawbers, before they all depart forAustralia. David wanders sadly abroad. His reputation asanovelist grows. He is consoled by a letter from Agnes, and returns to Britainwhere he finds Traddles now practising as a lawyer and happily married at lastto his Sophy. With Traddles, he visits a prison and finds that two of theconvicts are Heep and Littimer. David realises what he had long been blindto: that he has always loved Agnes Wickfield, and that she has always been thelight of his life. His undisciplined heart had led him astray. Nowhe is sure that Agnes is involved with someone else, and decides he must notinterfere. At last this misunderstanding is cleared up. David and Agnes declaretheir mutual love, and are married. Agnes reveals that this was Dorasdying wish. Ten years later, Mr Peggotty returnsfromAustralia, with news of the emigrants, who have all made a success of their newlives. Micawber has even become a magistrate. David remains very happily marriedto Agnes. Aunt Betsey and Peggotty help to look after their children. WithAgnes, David Copperfield has established himself and achieved hishappiness.

• 489. Economic crisis in Russia (Российский кризис 1998 года)
  Разное

  But the worst thing is that the economic crisis entailed the political crisis. Because, as one of the most famous writers, philosophers and politicians of the Renaissance Niccolò Machiavelli said, "the only way to reach prosperity of the country is to have a firm, determined and intelligent leader, who will be an avatar of the majority's interests, and who will have a great estimation among the people". And the Russian president Boris Yeltsin has already lost all the consideration, and the things were getting worse and worse after the beginning of the crisis. The recent ordered murder of the famous deputy and democrat Galina Starovoytova was a signal that lawlessness in Russia has reached its apogee. She was among those few people, who performed real action. As a peacemaker she went to many "hot spots" and tried to stop the bloodshed. But she was a real obstacle for people who did not want human rights and laws to be the most precious thing. After this incident, all democratic parties have realised the necessity of joining their forces against their common enemies- communists and fascists. It may seem unbelievable, but at the end of XX-th century there is a serious threat of turning Russia into a nationalistic and fascist country, because the number of people (especially young) joining different nationalistic organisations. The opposition, which is always very active, would not hesitate a second if there would be a little chance to overtake the power.

• 490. Einhard
  Юриспруденция, право, государство

• 491. Essay on Nikki Giovanni's poem
  Разное

• 492. Essay on the article "Tobacco and Tolerance: Blowing smoke" (о вреде курения)
  Разное

  Similarly, as a father and mother take care of a small child who does not yet have his own opinion on what is good and what is bad, who do not even know, that many seemingly innocent things harm his health greatly and cause strong addiction. Even when a child realises that, it is very hard for him to make the right decision. And if we consider such thing as smoking, the only right decision is not to start it. One may argue that whether to smoke or not is the private decision of every person and no one might impose his point of work to someone. I agree with this statement, but not always this principle provides us with a solution to the problem of social wellbeing. People make a lot of decisions connected with great risks like motorcycle riding, parachute jumping, smoking, taking drugs and so on. Some of these things have unalterable consequences, which make people regret they have made these decisions during the rest of their lives. The only thing they should ask themselves is whether this thing is worth risking. The fewer would be the number of activities that greatly harm human health, and above all, of these, which are not worth risking like smoking, the better it would be for the health of all humanity. The exceptions are such things as scuba diving or mountain climbing and other, because they can be justified from many reasons and they are not simple and stupid self-poisoning. I do not agree with the author of the article “Tobacco and Tolerance: Blowing smoke” that smoking is not a social problem but a private one and the anti-smoking program should be minimized. Those people, who have already started and have become addicted to the grayish-blue fumes cant fully realize, why do they take this great risk, still acknowledging that this harms their health, and it is hard for them to give up smoking without outside help. For this noble purpose there should always exist those people who can clearly realize this enormous threat as third persons with their unaddicted minds. They should never stop such hard and unappreciated occupations as different anti-smoke programs and, whether smokers want it or not, they should try to pull them out of this gray and poisonous swamp. This can be done by different government merciless limitations of tobacco producing companies, tobacco advertisements, restricting places for smoking to minimum and so on. That is why smoking is a problem of the whole society, despite some of its members think that it is not, because healthy persons form a healthy society.

• 493. Famous People of Belarus
  Разное

  First of all I'd like to mention the name of

• 494. Fighting fоr wоmеn’s libеrаtiоn
  История

  Thе mоst fundаmеntаl fаctоr is thе cоntrаdictiоns bеtwееn thе prоmisеs оf cаpitаlism аnd thе аctuаl еxpеriеncе оf оrdinаry pеоplе. Оn thе оnе hаnd thеrе is thе myth оf еquаlity bеfоrе thе lаw, thе rоmаntic idеа оf еvеrlаsting lоvе in mоnоgаmоus mаrriаgе, thе еmphаsis оn оur individuаlity tо nаmе just а fеw. Hоwеvеr thе clаss divisiоns in sоciеty аnd thе fаct thаt еxplоitаtiоn аnd оpprеssiоn dеmеаn pеоplе mеаns thеsе myths mаkе а mоckеry оf mоst pеоplеs livеs. Thеrе is а pоpulаr idеа thаt pеоplе will оnly fight bаck whеn thеir livеs bеcоmе unbеаrаblе аs а rеsult оf fаlling living stаndаrds. But thе prоcеss by which pеоplе rеsist is much mоrе cоmplеx. Lаck оf pоwеr brееds lаck оf cоnfidеncе. But in thе lоng pоst-wаr bооm, rising living stаndаrds аctuаlly rаisеd lеvеls оf cоnfidеncе. Thе fаct оf thе bооm mоvеd pеоplе tо еxpеct mоrе frоm lifе thаn prеviоus gеnеrаtiоns. But оf cоursе, bоssеs аnd gоvеrnmеnts shаrеd nо such аspirаtiоns. But аlsо, it incrеаsingly bеcаmе еvidеnt thаt in spitе оf thе bооm, rаcism, аnd оthеr fоrms оf оpprеssiоn wоuld nоt bе wipеd оut withоut а fight. Оnе оf thе first signs оf this rеcоgnitiоn wаs thе Civil Rights Mоvеmеnt in thе US. This in turn highlightеd thе nееd tо strugglе tо оthеrs. Fоr instаncе, it wаs thе US Civil Rights Mоvеmеnt thаt inspirеd mоstly whitе, аnd оnе blаck univеrsity studеnt, Chаrlеs Pеrkins, tо оrgаnisе а Frееdоm Ridе frоm Sydnеy Univеrsity аrоund thе оutbаck NSW tоwns whеrе аnti-Аbоriginаl rаcism wаs rifе. This lеd tо incrеаsеd аnti-rаcist аctivity. Аgаin, thе Wоmеns Libеrаtiоn Mоvеmеnt аrоsе frоm thе cоntrаdictiоns highlightеd by thе bооm. Аs wоmеn wеrе pullеd intо thе wоrkfоrcе in grоwing numbеrs, аs cоntrаcеptiоn bеcаmе аvаilаblе, аnd mоrе wоmеn еntеrеd tеrtiаry еducаtiоn, еspеciаlly аs tеаchеrs (pullеd in by а shоrtаgе оf tеаchеrs in аn еxpаnding еducаtiоn systеm), thе idеа thаt thеy shоuld bе cоntеnt tо bе hоusеwivеs аnd mоthеrs bеgаn tо cоmе unstuck. It is nоt insignificаnt thаt it wаs wоrking clаss wоmеn, mаny оf whоm hаd bееn influеncеd by thе Cоmmunist Pаrty оf Аustrаliа (CPА), thаt hit thе hеаdlinеs in 1969 prоtеsting оvеr еquаl pаy. Wоrking аlоngsidе mеn, cаtching public trаnspоrt whеrе thеy pаid thе sаmе fаrеs, but bеing pаid lеss, fаcing thе prоblеms оf childcаrе whilе еxpеriеncing discriminаtiоn аt wоrk drоvе аn аt first tiny minоrity tо tаkе а stаnd.

• 495. Future of aboriginal Australians
  Иностранные языки

  Problems such as alcoholism and drugs are proportionately higher among Aboriginal youth. The health problems of Aboriginal communities are worse than those of whites, and the life expectancy of Aboriginals is lower than that of whites. In addition to this, and for all the above reasons, the proportion of Aboriginals in the prison system is far higher than the proportion in the community. (This has been the case for the last 30 or 40 years. Before that, for the whole of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century, the Irish Catholics numerically dominated the prison system, out of all proportion to their numbers in society at large, much to the mock horror of upper-class British Australia, which got very worked up about the criminal propensities of Catholics. The reason for this over-representation of Catholics in the prisons was exactly the same as the current over-representation of Aboriginals. At that stage Irish Catholics were the poorest of the population, at the bottom of the social heap. In Paul Sheehan's book, he also makes great chauvinist mileage from the proposition that Vietnamese, Arabs, Turks and Maoris (Sheehan's codeword for Maoris is "New Zealanders"), recent immigrants from poor countries or poor circumstances, are somewhat over-represented in the prison system. So what's new?)

• 496. Genetic Manipulation
  Разное

  Still this burning issue has arguments both in favor of and against gene technology. The success of genetic manipulation will result in a better quality of life for people. Nearly all diseases can potentially be cured. Cancer will be wiped out, as cancer causing genetic defects will no longer be a problem. As a result of genetic testing, risk prevention is also a benefit. If I find that I am genetically inclined to have a heart attack, I can reshape my habits around my genetic dispositions. Or, if I know that I have a recessive gene for a disease, I will know not to have a child by another person with that gene. Also we get more than just medical benefits. If it is found out that genes are responsible for the work of the mind, than who is to say that someday people won't be able to endow their children with certain qualities. Many see this as an advantage. Before my child is even conceived, I can give him brown hair, green eyes, 6 feet in height and an intellect to match! In a nutshell, the benefits are long lives, less disease and tailored children.

• 497. Gothic Painting (1280-1515)
  Разное

  The Gothic style began with the architecture of the 12th century, at the height of the Middle Ages, when Europe was putting the memory of the ``Dark Ages'' behind it and moving into a radiant new era of prosperity and confidence. At the same time, Christianity was entering a new and triumphant phase of its history, and so the age of chivalry was also the time of the building of the magnificent Gothic cathedrals, such as those in the northern French towns of Chartres, Reims and Amiens. In the realm of painting, the change to the new style became visible around a century after the first of these cathedrals rose. In contrast to the Romanesque and Byzantine styles, the most noticeable feature of the art of the Gothic period is its increased naturalism. This quality, which first appeared in the work of Italian artists in the late 13th century, became the dominant painting style throughout Europe until the end of the 15th century.

• 498. Great Britain: the Land of Traditions
  Культура и искусство

  Healthy lifestyle obsession which seized thousands of British people in recent years has made many of them vegetarians or even vegans. Their diet does not include such typically British foods as beef, mutton, bacon or eggs. James ODriscoll write, “There are quite a large number of vegetarians in Britain and an even larger number who are aware of the implications for their health of what they eat.” Health food shops are as abundant in the countrys high streets as delicatessens. In spite of their reputation British people are more tolerant and more open to new experiences including the cuisines of other countries. In the 1960ies the first British tourists in Spain not only insisted on eating (traditionally British) fish and chips but also on having them, as was traditional, wrapped up in specially imported British newspaper. By now, however, the countrys supermarket shelves are full of the spices and souces needed for cooking dishes from all over the world. There is no town in the country which does not have at least one Indian restaurant and probably a Chinese one too. Larger towns and cities have restaurants representing cuisine from all over the world. It can easily be explained by the increasingly multicultural nature of the population and the cosmopolitan character of such cities as London.

• 499. Hamlet by William Shakespeare
  Иностранные языки

  Hamlet is a play written by William Shakespeare that very closely follows the dramatic conventions of revenge in Elizabethan theater. All revenge tragedies originally stemmed from the Greeks, who wrote and performed the first plays. After the Greeks came Seneca who was very influential to all Elizabethan tragedy writers. Seneca who was Roman, basically set all of the ideas and the norms for all revenge play writers in the Renaissance era including William Shakespeare. The two most famous English revenge tragedies written in the Elizabethan era were Hamlet, written by Shakespeare and The Spanish Tragedy, written by Thomas Kyd. These two plays used mostly all of the Elizabethan conventions for revenge tragedies in their plays. Hamlet especially incorporated all revenge conventions in one way or another, which truly made Hamlet a typical revenge play. "Shakespeares Hamlet is one of many heroes of the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage who finds himself grievously wronged by a powerful figure, with no recourse to the law, and with a crime against his family to avenge." Seneca was among the greatest authors of classical tragedies and there was not one educated Elizabethan who was unaware of him or his plays. There were certain stylistic and different strategically thought out devices that Elizabethan playwrights including Shakespeare learned and used from Senecas great tragedies. The five act structure, the appearance of some kind of ghost, the one line exchanges known as stichomythia, and Senecas use of long rhetorical speeches were all later used in tragedies by Elizabethan playwrights. Some of Senecas ideas were originally taken from the Greeks when the Romans conquered Greece, and with it they took home many Greek theatrical ideas. Some of Senecas stories that originated from the Greeks like Agamemnon and Thyestes which dealt with bloody family histories and revenge captivated the Elizabethans. Senecas stories werent really written for performance purposes, so if English playwrights liked his ideas, they had to figure out a way to make the story theatrically workable, relevant and exciting to the Elizabethan audience who were very demanding. Senecas influence formed part of a developing tradition of tragedies whose plots hinge on political power, forbidden sexuality, family honor and private revenge. "There was no author who exercised a wider or deeper influence upon the Elizabethan mind or upon the Elizabethan form of tragedy than did Seneca." For the dramatists of Renaissance Italy, France and England, classical tragedy meant only the ten Latin plays of Seneca and not Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles. "Hamlet is certainly not much like any play of Senecas one can name, but Seneca is undoubtedly one of the effective ingredients in the emotional charge of Hamlet. Hamlet without Seneca is inconceivable."the time of Elizabethan theater, plays about tragedy and revenge were very common and a regular convention seemed to be formed on what aspects should be put into a typical revenge tragedy. In all revenge tragedies first and foremost, a crime is committed and for various reasons laws and justice cannot punish the crime so the individual who is the main character, goes through with the revenge in spite of everything. The main character then usually had a period of doubt , where he tries to decide whether or not to go through with the revenge, which usually involves tough and complex planning. Other features that were typical were the appearance of a ghost, to get the revenger to go through with the deed. The revenger also usually had a very close relationship with the audience through soliloquies and asides. The original crime that will eventually be avenged is nearly always sexual or violent or both. The crime has been committed against a family member of the revenger. " The revenger places himself outside the normal moral order of things, and often becomes more isolated as the play progresses-an isolation which at its most extreme becomes madness." The revenge must be the cause of a catastrophe and the beginning of the revenge must start immediately after the crisis. After the ghost persuades the revenger to commit his deed, a hesitation first occurs and then a delay by the avenger before killing the murderer, and his actual or acted out madness. The revenge must be taken out by the revenger or his trusted accomplices. The revenger and his accomplices may also die at the moment of success or even during the course of revenge. It should not be assumed that revenge plays parallel the moral expectations of the Elizabethan audience. Church, State and the regular morals of people in that age did not accept revenge, instead they thought that revenge would simply not under any circumstances be tolerated no matter what the original deed was. " It is repugnant on theological grounds, since Christian orthodoxy posits a world ordered by Divine Providence, in which revenge is a sin and a blasphemy, endangering the soul of the revenger." The revenger by taking law into his own hands was in turn completely going against the total political authority of the state.should therefore never think that revenge was expected by Elizabethan society. Although they loved to see it in plays, it was considered sinful and it was utterly condemned. The Spanish Tragedy written by Thomas Kyd was an excellent example of a revenge tragedy. With this play, Elizabethan theater received its first great revenge tragedy, and because of the success of this play, the dramatic form had to be imitated. The play was performed from 1587 to 1589 and it gave people an everlasting remembrance of the story of a father who avenges the murder of his son. In this story, a man named Andrea is killed by Balthazar in the heat of battle. The death was considered by Elizabethan people as a fair one, therefore a problem occurred when Andreas ghost appeared to seek vengeance on its killer. Kyd seemed to have used this to parallel a ghost named Achilles in Senecas play Troades. Andreas ghost comes and tells his father, Hieronimo that he must seek revenge. Hieronimo does not know who killed his son but he goes to find out. During his investigation, he receives a letter saying that Lorenzo killed his son, but he doubts this so he runs to the king for justice. Hieronimo importantly secures his legal rights before taking justice into his own hands. The madness scene comes into effect when Hieronimos wife, Usable goes mad, and Hieronimo is so stunned that his mind becomes once again unsettled. Finally Hieronimo decides to go through with the revenge, so he seeks out to murder Balthazar and Lorenzo, which he successfully does. Hieronimo becomes a blood thirsty maniac and when the king calls for his arrest, he commits suicide. As well as the fact that Elizabethan theater had its rules about how a revenge tragedy had to be, so did Thomas Kyd. He came up with the Kydian Formula to distinguish revenge tragedies from other plays. His first point was that the fundamental motive was revenge, and the revenge is aided by an accomplice who both commit suicide after the revenge is achieved. The ghost of the slain watches the revenge on the person who killed him. The revenger goes through justifiable hesitation before committing to revenge as a solution. Madness occurs due to the grieve of a loss. Intrigue is used against and by the revenger. There is bloody action and many deaths that occur throughout the entire play. The accomplices on both sides are killed. The villain is full of villainous devices. The revenge is accomplished terribly and fittingly. The final point that Thomas Kyd made about his play was that minor characters are left to deal with the situation at the end of the play. The Spanish Tragedy follows these rules made by Kyd very closely, simply because Kyd developed these rules from the play. The fundamental motive was revenge because that was the central theme of the play. The ghost of Andrea sees his father kill the men who murdered Andrea originally. Hieronimo hesitates first because he goes to the king and then he is faced with Isabellas madness which is caused by Andreas death.play is filled with all kinds of bloody action and many people die throughout the course of the play. The accomplices in the play also all end up dead. Lorenzo who is the true villain, is full of all kinds of evil villainous devices. The revenge works out perfectly, in that both Lorenzo and Balthazar get murdered in the end by Hieronimo. The minor characters were left to clean up the mess of all of the deaths that occurred during the play. The Spanish Tragedy also follows the conventions of Elizabethan theater very closely. The murder was committed and Hieronimo had to take justice into his own hands, because true justice just simply wasnt available. Hieronimo then delays his revenge for many different reasons that occur in the play. The ghost of Andrea appeared and guided Hieronimo to the direction of his killer. Also at the end of the play, both Hieronimo and his accomplices die after they were successful in committing the revenge. In Hamlet, Shakespeare follows regular convention for a large part of the play. In the beginning, Shakespeare sets up the scene, having a ghost on a dark night. Everyone is working and something strange is happening in Denmark. It is as if Shakespeare is saying that some kind of foul play has been committed. This sets up for the major theme in the play which is of course revenge. The ghost appears to talk to Hamlet. It is quite obvious that the play had a gruesome, violent death and the sexual aspect of the play was clearly introduced when Claudius married Hamlets mother Gertrude. The ghost tells Hamlet that he has been given the role of the person who will take revenge upon Claudius. Hamlet must now think of how to take revenge on Claudius, although he doesnt know what to do about it. He ponders his thoughts for a long period of time, expecting to do the deed immediately, but instead he drags it on until the end of the play. Although what was important to note was that all tragic heroes of plays at that time delayed their actual revenge until the end of the play. In most revenge plays, the revenger was often anonymous and well disguised, stalking the enemy about to be killed, but Hamlet started a battle of wits with Claudius by acting mad and calling it his "antic disposition", although the whole thing was a ploy to get closer to Claudius to be able to avenge his fathers death more easily. The tactic was a disadvantage in that it drew all attention upon himself. More importantly though it was an advantage that his "antic disposition", isolated him from the rest of the court because of the people not paying attention to what he thought or did because of his craziness.important part of all revenge plays is that after the revenge is finally decided upon, the tragic hero delays the actual revenge until the end of the play. Hamlets delay of killing Claudius takes on three distinct stages. Firstly he had to prove that the ghost was actually telling the truth, and he did this by staging the play "The Mousetrap" at court. When Claudius stormed out in rage, Hamlet knew that he was guilty. The second stage was when Hamlet could have killed Claudius while he was confessing to god. If Hamlet had done it here then Claudius would have gone to heaven because he confessed while Hamlets father was in purgatory because he did not get the opportunity to confess. So Hamlet therefore decided not to murder Claudius at this point in the play. The third delay was the fact that he got side tracked. He accidentally killed Polonius which created a whole new problem with the fact that Laertes now wanted Hamlet dead. After he commit this murder he was also sent off and unable to see the king for another few weeks until he could finally do the job. "What makes Hamlet stand out from many other revenge plays of the period is not that it rejects the conventions of its genre but that it both enacts and analyses them." It can be easily understood that Hamlet very closely follows the regular conventions for all Elizabethan tragedies.Hamlet is faced with the fact that he has to avenge the murder of his father and since there is no fair justice available, he must take the law into his own hands. The ghost of his father appears to guide Hamlet to Claudius and inform Hamlet of the evil that Claudius has committed. Then Hamlet constantly delays his revenge and always finds a way to put it off until he finally does it in Act V, Scene 2. Hamlet at the same time continues to keep a close relationship with the audience with his seven main soliloquies including the famous, "To be, or not to be..."(Act 3 Scene 1). The play also consists of a mad scene where Ophelia has gone mad because her father Polonius had been killed and because Hamlet was sent off to England. The sexual aspect of the play was brought in when Claudius married Gertrude after he had dreadfully killed Old Hamlet and taken his throne. Hamlet also follows almost every aspect of Thomas Kyds formula for a revenge tragedy. The only point that can be argued is that the accomplices on both sides were not killed because at the end of the play, Horatio was the only one to survive, although if it wasnt for Hamlet, Horatio would have commit suicide when he said, " I am more an antique Roman than a Dane. Heres some liquor left."(Act V Scene 2, 346-347). If Horatio had killed himself, then Hamlet would have followed the Kydian formula as well as the regular conventions for Elizabethan revenge tragedy. Hamlet is definitely a great example of a typical revenge tragedy of the Elizabethan theater era. It followed every convention required to classify it as a revenge play quite perfectly. Hamlet is definitely one of the greatest revenge stories ever written and it was all influenced first by Sophocles, Euripides and other Greeks, and then more importantly by Seneca. Hamlet as well as The Spanish Tragedy tackled and conquered all areas that were required for the consummation of a great revenge tragedy. Revenge although thought to be unlawful and against the Church was absolutely adored by all Elizabethan people. " The Elizabethan audience always insisted on seeing eventual justice, and one who stained his hands with blood had to pay the penalty. That no revenger, no matter how just, ever wholly escapes the penalty for shedding blood, even in error." This was also a very important point that was also dealt with brilliantly by Shakespeare in finding a way to kill Hamlet justly even though he was required to kill Claudius. Hamlet was written with the mighty pen of Shakespeare who once again shows people that he can conjure up any play and make it one of the greatest of all time. Hamlet was one of the greatest of all time.

• 500. How Can One Individual Effect on the Environment
  Экология

  Its needless to say that environment is the most topical issue of all times, especially nowadays. And when politicians, heads of the countries speak about environment, the most frequently used phrase is: Every person should do his best to improve the environmental situation. Its in the hands of every human being. So lets consider the one persons ways of affecting on the environment.of all, one should begin with his own house. Everybody knows that there are some kinds of house utensils you shouldnt put into the garbage - like fluorescent lamps, some chemicals and so on because this rubbish havent ability to decompose and can lead to pollution of the environment. And of course we shouldnt forget to be able to bring our garbage to its destination - to the rubbish bin.next point is cars. Im not trying to convince you to that every individual ought to stop using his SUV and use a bicycle as everyday kind of transport. But nowadays thanks to car corporations interest in antipollution campaigns there are so-called clear cars, that drive with help of new, not so polluting oil and have new system of engines. Whats more, these cars are a little cheaper, so its double bonus. And, of course, using a bike in your holidays or not so busy working days is also a little step forward less polluted environment.the last, but not the least way of effecting on environment is persons everyday behavior, everyday way of life. Spitting out chewed gum, empty juice or pepsi can, breaking branches, washing car in the nearest river or lake - all these small and insignificant, unimportant acts really do some harm to the surroundings where you are living, where your children , grandchildren and grand-grand children will be living.s easy to think that one bad action can lead to nothing. That one thrown out cigarette-butt is just a drop in the ocean, just one of many left there, and it cant influence anything. But its time for everybody to understand that its not. It wrong. One mans step towards less polluted surroundings is almost nothing. But all the steps in sum are the straight way to your unpolluted future.

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