Информация по предмету Иностранные языки

• 161. Trotskyst movement in Australia
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  Some months ago we had a dіscussіon on the Trotskyіst slogan: "The uncondіtіonal defence of the Sovіet Unіon". Although thіs slogan has been a cornerstone of Trotskyіst polіcy, іt іmmedіately became apparent that there exіsted a wіde dіvergence of opіnіon among members as to іts precіse іmplіcatіons and contіnued valіdіty. One member declared emphatіcally that іf ever the armіes representіng the "workers state" attempted to іnvade Australіa, he would resіst wіth arms іn hand. Other members questіoned the "progressіve" role of the armіes of the "workers state" and expressed doubts as to whether the people of France and Germany would welcome theіr presence іn theіr countrіes. The chaіrman refused to be drawn іnto any dіscussіon as to what Trotskyіsts should do іf the armіes from a "workers state" entered other countrіes. He lіmіted hіs contrіbutіon to a reіteratіon of all the old slogans and phrases ... as though all practіcal questіons were forever answered by reference to programmatіc documents. Of course the chaіrman was on the lіne. Hіs was the Trotskyіst posіtіon.

• 162. UK Parliament
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  Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. This means it has a monarch as its Head of the State. The monarch reigns with the support of Parliament. The UK Parliament is one of the oldest representative assemblies in the world, having its origin in the mid-13th century. By the 1250s King Henry III (1216-1272) was running into difficulties with his nobility. They were angry at the cost of his schemes, such as rebuilding of Westminster Abbey and a proposed campaign to make one of his youngest sons King of Sicily. The provisions of Oxford (1258), imposed on Henry by his barons, established a permanent baronial council which took control of certain key appointments. The leader of the baronial movement was Simon de Montfort, the Earl of Leister. In 1259 the Provisions of Westminster reformed the common law. Henry eventually renounced both sets of provisions and challenged the barons. Civil war broke out in 1264, initially going well for Simon de Montfort. During the conflict he sought to boost his baronial support by summoning knights of the shires and burgesses to attend his parliament. This was the first time that commoners had been represented. De Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, but his innovation of summoning the commons to attend parliaments was repeated in later years and soon became standard. Thus it is from him that the modern idea of a representative parliament derives. From the 14th century parliamentary government in the United Kingdom has been based on a two-chamber system. The House of Lords (the upper house) and the House of Commons (the lower house) sit separately and are constituted on entirely different principles. In the 14th century, under King Edward III (1327-1377) it was accepted that there should be no taxation without parliamentary consent, still a fundamental principle of today. Two distinct Houses of Parliament were emerging for the first time, with the “Commons” sitting apart from the “Upper House” form 1342. The “Good Parliament” of 1376 saw the election of the first Speaker, Thomas Hungerford, to represent the Commons. It also saw the use of “impeachment”, whereby the House of Commons as a body could accuse officials who had abused their authority and put them on trial before the Lords. In the 15th century the Commons gained equal law-making powers with the Lords, under King Henry V. The 16th century saw the legal union of Wales which had long been subject to the English crown with England under King Henry VIII (1509-1547). Henrys reign also saw the Church of England break away from the Roman Catholic Church. The “Gunpowder Plot” of 1605 may have been hatched when it became clear that the new King, James I, intended to do nothing to ease the plight of the Catholics in the country. In the 17th century, tensions increased between parliament and monarch, such that in 1641 the King and Parliament could not agree on the control of troops for repression of the Irish Rebellion. Civil war broke out the following year, leading to the execution of King Charles I in January 1649. Following the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, the role of Parliament was enhanced by the events of 1668-1669 (the “Glorious Revolution” and the passage of the Bull of Rights which established the authority of Parliament over the King, the enshrined in law the principle of freedom of speech in parliamentary debates. 1707 brought the Union with Scotland and the first Parliament of Great Britain. Growing pressure for reform of parliament in the 18th and 19th centuries led to a series of Reform Acts which extended the electoral franchise to most men (over 21) in 1867 and finally to women over 21 in 1928. The legislative primacy of the House of Commons over the Lords was confirmed in the 20th century by the passing of the Parliamentary Acts of 1911 and 1949.

• 163. United states of America: geography, history, culture
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• 164. Uranium enrichment
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  There are a number of other uranium enrichment technologies such as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS), molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS), chemical reaction by isotope selective laser activation (CRISLA), and chemical and ion exchange enrichment that have been developed as well, but they are mostly still in the experimental or demonstration stage and have not yet been used to enrich commercial or military quantities of uranium. The AVLIS, CRISLA, and MLIS processes make use of the slight difference in atomic properties of U-235 and U-238 to allow powerful lasers to preferentially excite or ionize one isotope over the other. AVLIS makes use of uranium metal as a feed material and electric fields to separate the positively charged U-235 ions from the neutral U-238 atoms. MLIS and CRISLA on the other hand use uranium hexafluoride mixed with other process gases as a feed material and use two different lasers to excite and then chemically alter the uranium hexafluoride molecules containing U-235, which can then be separated from those molecules containing U-238 that remained unaffected by the lasers. AVLIS was pursued for commercial use by the U.S. Enrichment Corporation, but was abandoned in the late 1990s as being unprofitable while other countries have also abandoned all known AVLIS and MLIS production programs as well. The chemical and ion exchange enrichment processes were developed by the French and the Japanese. These techniques make use of the very slight differences in the reaction chemistry of the U-235 and U-238 atoms. Through the use of appropriate solvents, the uranium can be separated into an enriched section (contained in one solvent stream) and a depleted stream (contained in a different solvent that does not mix with the first in the same way that oil and water do not mix). This enrichment technique was also pursued by Iraq. Currently all known programs involving this technique have been closed since at least the early 1990s. All of these technologies have been demonstrated on the small scale and some, like AVLIS, have gone further along in the development process that would be necessary to scale up to production level facilities. This would be particularly true if the profitability of the plant was not an issue and it was only meant to enrich the reasonably modest quantities of HEU necessary for one to two bombs per year. Currently, however, the gas centrifuge appears to be the primary technology of choice for both future commercial enrichment as well as for potential nuclear weapons proliferation.

• 165. Vygotsky’s psychological works
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• 166. Web Site Development
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  "Beam me up, Scottie." This popular line from Star Trek was a demonstration of the advanced technology of the future. Though it was a fictional story, Star Trek became the universal vision of the future. As always reality tends to mimic fiction. Though our society has not quite resulted to living in space, we have made life easier with technology. Economic survival has become more dependent upon information and communications bringing forth new technology of which was never thought possible. Just a mere thirty years ago a computer occupied a whole room compared todays palm sized computers, which are faster and perform more functions. Cellular phones, now light and compact, were bulky just ten years ago. The most incredible invention, the Internet, is bringing infinite amount of information to your desktop. In the world of the of the Internet there exist a world blind to skin color and other physical appearances. The Internet while still young in age has grown rapidly, spreading to countries world wide and connecting 50 million users. With its popularity, it is incumbent upon our society to recognize how the Internet works and to be aware of its advantages as well as disadvantages. While seemingly high tech the Internet concept is rather simple. Computers speak to one another and send information. This is accomplished by sending and receiving electronic impulse, and then decoding them into a message. In order to communicate with one another they are linked up in a network. They are then able to access information from thousands of other computers. The network acts like one large computer storing information in various places, rather than in one physical structure. Users tap into the Internet to access or provide information. Internet technology allows one to surf the World Wide Web or send e-mail. The vision of the Internet that would revolutionize the computer and communications belonged to JCR Licklider of MIT (Leiner n. page). In August of 1962 he envisioned a globally interconnected set of computers which would allow everyone to quickly access data and programs (Leiner n. page). A government sponsored project at Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) started in October (Leiner n. page). The race for discovery of such technology raged between the Soviet Union and The United States of America. Both countries wanted control of the possibly powerful tool. Then in 1968, The National Physical Laboratory in Great Britain set up the first test network, which prompted the Pentagons ARPA to fund a larger project in the USA. (Sterling n. page) However the race was not limited to just nations but also companies. In 1965, working with Thomas Merrill, Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide-area computer ever built. These experiments proved that computers could work together running programs and retrieving data as necessary on remote machines. Roberts put together his plan for ARPANET, published in 1966. At that time he learned of Donald Davies and Roger Scantlebury of NPL and Paul Baron and others at RAND. Research at MIT (1961-1967), RAND (1962-1965) and NPL (1964-1967) while parallel had no knowledge of one another. In August of 1968 an RFQ, a refined model of ARPANET was released for the development of one of the key components, the packet switches Interface Message Processors (IMP). Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) installed the first IMP at UCLA and the first host computer was connected. By the end of 1969 four host computers were connected together into the initial ARPANET and the Internet was off the ground. In 1977, electronic mail was introduced. (Leiner n. page) As the Internet quickly grew, changes were necessary. The Internets decentralized structure made it easy to expand but its NCP did not have the ability to address networks further down stream than the destination IMP. Bob Kahn decided to develop a new version of the protocol which eventually became known as the Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Compared to the NCP which acted as a device driver, the new protocol was more like a communication protocol. In order to make it easier to use, Host were then assigned names, replacing numbers. A group of scientist then set out to show that a compact and simple implementation of TCP was possible. They succeeded, allowing it to run on desktop computers. (Leiner n. page). Original uses of the Internet included government communications and a forum for scientist to share ideas and help one another in research. In the 1980s the Internet grew beyond its primarily research roots to include a broad user community and increased commercial activity. In present day it has become a tool for conducting research and finding information, as well as communications with others. Electronic mail, amazingly popular, with chat rooms and discussion groups makes the Internet a popular place for meeting new people. (Leiner n. page). Perhaps the largest shift is in the profile of Internet users. In the beginning users were scientist and government officials: those highly educated and well trained. However todays 50 million users are all ages and from all backgrounds (Why use the Internet? n. page). Access to the Internet is no longer limited and can be found just about everywhere including schools, colleges, libraries, and at home. In 1992 the Internet had a growth of twenty percent every month (Why use the Internet? n.page). A developer of the Internet said, "If the Internet stumbles, it will not be because we lack for technology, vision, or motivation. It will be because we cannot set a direction and march collectively into the future." (Leiner n. page) Clearly the Internet has brought many conveniences. Businesses and students benefit from the technology as well as those who use the Internet for personal uses. Over 50 million people used the Internet in 1995 and by the year 2000 the number is predicted to be over 150 million (Why your company should be on the Internet n. page). Fortune Magazine said, "The Internet is the biggest and earliest manifestation of the way business is going to be conducted from now on." Companies are embracing the Internet and those who do not will be left behind (Why use the Internet? n. page). The Internet opens a wider audience to companies providing customers valuable information via mailing lists. Space on the Internet is inexpensive compared to paper, radio and television advertisements, therefore companies reach a broader community with little cost (Why use the Internet? n. page). Most web users are well educated Americans with professional or technical jobs with median annual salary of $69,000, making them a prime target group. Opening a storefront online gives the advantage of always being open. The Internet is a fair playing field for large and small companies alike. Computer networks track inventory and consumer demand resulting in increased profits (Why Minnesota Students Need Access to the Internet n. page). Remote video conferencing and Internet phones allow companies to conduct live chat sessions with clients around the world. Data bases are available for public or private uses. Companies can transfer files, bulletins or e-mail via the Internet, and it is all very affordable.(Why use the Web? n.page) Students as well as commerce is benefiting from the Internet. Students need more information than is offered by school libraries. The Internet gives students access to resources from around the world. They are also more willing to sit and browse the Internet then to use the library. Information can be found, selected and retrieved faster on the Internet. Entire books can be transferred in minutes (Sterling n.page). Students find the Internet to be a viable educational tool which makes them aware of the globalism of the world rather than sheltered in the realm of the classroom. They have the option of writing to pen pals in other countries and getting to know other cultures. (MRP-Discussion n. page) The Internet also serves as a preparation tool for the future. The world is moving towards electronics: in todays market being competitive means knowing how to get information, and more and more, it is traveling by wires. The Internet allows children to get hands on experience, and helps them develop intellectual skills and problem solving. It allows children to research information that interest them. For example, a child interested in baseball can find information on the latest statistics and read about the history of the sport. By educating themselves it opens their minds to technology. (Why Minnesota Students need access to the Internet n.page) The Internet is a popular place to socialize. Exchanging information with those far away take only seconds using the Internet. While postal mail can take days, electronic mail, or e-mail, takes seconds. Many companies offer e-mail services for free to those with access to computer with a modem. Unlike phone system and postal system there are no charges for long distance service or communication with foreign countries. E-mail and instant messages (found in programs such as America Online and ICQ) can be used to send images and software. (Sterling n. page) Internet technology has gone as far as to allow people to make new friends without any physical contact. One way to meet new people is to join an Internet discussion group. In such a group people with a common interest ask and receive advice and exchange information. Another opportunity to meet new people is in Internet chat rooms. In such rooms one can speak freely to anyone as if they were at a party. America Online users refer to relations charter though the sever as "AOL luv". Those in discussion groups and chat rooms are not limited to just Americans but open to people all around the world. The Internet is a world wide tool filled with many cultures, and different people. In this world, race is not a factor since there is no physical contact. Everyone is equal and has the freedom to express oneself. It is an institution that resists institutionalization. It belongs to everyone and yet no one, everyone sort of pitches in and it evolves on its own. There are no censors, bosses, board of directors or stockholders. The Internet is unregulated and uncensored. However, the Internet being so free and uncensored presents many problems. Acknowledgment of children using the Internet has fueled a fight for regulation. Parents can not always monitor their children, therefore the Internet needs to be a safe place for the children. Children have access to the Internet in schools, libraries, and just about everywhere. In schools it is nearly impossible for a teacher to watch all the children, and in libraries it is not the librarians job to monitor them. Computers and the Internet are for everyone, including children, thus it has become an immense problem. Access to pornography has been one of the greatest concerns among parents. Surprisingly, pornography is easy to access and children will. Children are naturally curious and love to explore. Minors are also targeted by advertisers. Just like on television advertisers try to lure children in with pictures and web sites which include games and chat rooms. However the biggest danger is not what they find on the Internet but who they find. The information they access is not as dangerous as the people they meet. There have been many cases of molesters and kidnappers searching for pray on-line. Nicknames are used to protect the identity of the children but can also be used to mask adults. They enter childrens chat rooms and coax the children to trust them. Nonetheless, denying the children access to the Internet is not the solution, perhaps software is. However software limiting childrens access to web pages have not been successful. In some case the software does not filter out all inappropriate pages but filters out non-objectionable pages. (Should children be kept off-line? n.page) Molesters and kidnappers are not the only people with access to the Internet we should fear. Those mischievous thinkers also pose a threat. Known as hackers or crackers, they search for vulnerable computer systems then strike. Businesses can lose trade secrets, and the damages can be a disaster. In 1996 Dan Framer, a security consultant, tested 2,000 computers networks, and of those 65% had security holes large enough for an intruder to enter (Freedman 280). Government computers are just a vulnerable as teenagers have recently demonstrated. Teenagers working out of their home with guidance from a 18 year old broke into government classified information. Though they were caught, it bought alarm to the possible dangers of information leaks. The United States enemies could have access to military codes and top secret files. Although the average person is not targeted by hackers they are in danger of fraud and con-artists. Stolen credit card numbers have been rumored to be a major problem. The chances of it happening are not as great as the media makes it to be, but nevertheless it is a problem. The criminals easily get away with such a crime. They get the number of a credit card and charge ridiculous bills, but by the time the bill comes they have moved on to the next victim. Many schemes come in the form of junk mail. They offer deals that sound too good to be true and chances are they fake. They only ask for a small sum of money up front, next they cash the check and move on. (Anarchy Online 98) Secure passwords can prevent hackers from accessing computers. Passwords should consist of numbers, letters and symbols: an example "P11++69." No matter how secure and high tech the computer security system, all it takes is a simple, stupid password like "hello" to render the whole system worthless. (Freedman 279) Though the Internet has its advantages it also has disadvantages, therefore users should educate oneself on the revolutionary tool. With over 50 million users the Internet is rapidly growing and is to the 90s what the personal computer was to the 70s. New usages are springing up everyday, making it impossible to predict the future of the Internet. One thing certain is that the Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications. "The Internet is a world wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for collaboration and interaction between individuals without regard to geographic location."

• 167. What strategy are most effective in the conditions of globalization
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  Administrative expenses (the control of accomplishment of works, negotiating so further)Bear all companies bar none. On the average constitute approximately 8 % of cost of the contractExpenses on quality control, payment of production managers and tracing of working processEmilia Maglia (the Italian textile company) has been forced to take for work of the Italian manager that he observed of labor obtainable locally at the factories placed in RomaniaExpenses on repair work and maintenance serviceIn case of the company of Hewlett Packard moving of system of the customer accounting to India has caused heavy expenses as it was necessary to direct the technicians for check of operation of system on places.The expenses connected with low production of workCompany Luxoptica has established following quotations on production of one and steams of lenses: 1,2 dollars for the Chinese worker and 2,63 dollars for Italian. However low production of work of the Chinese workers, an over-expenditure of materials and other factors couldn't compensate more attractive hourly ratesThe expenses connected with a local infrastructureIn India the electricity, and telecommunication not always high quality often disconnect. It assumes heavy expenses at placing in these countries of the service centers and accounting systems.Expenses connected with local standard conditionsLabor law non-observance at factories Levi Strauss placed to Haiti, has led to catastrophic consequences for image of the company.The expenses connected with risks of delegation of powerWhen Sarp has realized that thanks to subcontractors competitors use its high technologies, it has reduced quantity of the operations transferred to partners.The expenses connected with policy risksPolitical instability in some developing states won't allow to count on that degree of reliability of business which is warranted by developed countries.The expenses connected with social risksThe decision on moving of assets British Telecom abroad has led to debate with labor unions and has caused disapproving reaction of employees that has enough cost much to the company

• 168. What the Bleep Do We Know!?
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• 169. Wireless connectivity
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  Most modems that operate over wireline telephone services will also interface and interoperate with cellular phones; however, modem software optimized to work with cellular phones minimizes battery usage. There are problems with modem communication over cellular links. The first problems occurring were the hand-off problems or roaming. As a mobile user moves from one service area to the next, a hand-off occurs from one service area to the next. The hand-off would disrupt the call for 100 to 200 ms. This is just enough to disrupt the carrier detect (CD) cycle; hence, the modem assumes that one of the callers has disconnected, and it hangs up. This problem can be overcome similar to fax modems over cellular links. The modem will delay 400 ms before hanging up, giving the hand-off enough time to take place. Some data might be affected, but error detection, and error correction procedures (CRCs) will detect and correct the data bits that have been corrupted. But, all these techniques lower the effective throughput of our communication system and the effective throughputs achieved with cellular modems hover around 19200 bits/s. (Bates, Gregory, 1995)

• 170. Women empowerment in the Middle east
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  Nations commitments to the advancement of women began with the signing of the UN Charter in San Francisco in 1945. Of the 160 signatories, only four were women - Minerva Bernardino (Dominican Republic), Virginia Gildersleeve (United States), Bertha Lutz (Brazil) and Wu Yi-Fang (China) - but they succeeded in inscribing womens rights in the founding document of the United Nations, which reaffirms in its preamble «faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of Nations large and small».Commission on the Status of Women first met at Lake Success, New York, in February 1947. At that session, all of the 15 government representatives were women - giving the Commission the unique character it was going to maintain throughout its history by gathering a majority of women delegates. From its inception, the Commission also forged a close relationship with nongovernmental organizations. Several international womens organizations addressed the Commission at the first session, and from then on, non-governmental organizations in consultative status with ECOSOC were invited to participate as observers.the beginning the Commission members also built close working relationships with the international human rights treaty bodies, the Commission on Human Rights, the Social Commission and the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, and specialized agencies such as UNESCO and UNICEF.the period 1946-1962, the Commission focused its attention on promoting women's rights and equality by setting standards and formulating international conventions aiming at changing discriminatory legislation and fostering global awareness of womens issues. However, the codification of the legal rights of women needed to be supported by data and analysis of the extent to which discrimination against women existed, not only in law but also in practice.Commission made womens political rights a high priority in the early years of its work. In 1945, only 25 of the original 51 United Nations Member States allowed women equal voting rights with men. In his 1950 report to the Commission on discrimination against women in the field of political rights, the Secretary General noted that in 22 countries women still did not have equal rights to vote or hold political office, and that in some countries where women held such rights, these were not put into practice. After an extensive debate, the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, drafted by the Commission, was adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 1952. It was the first international law instrument to recognize and protect the political rights of women everywhere by spelling out that women, on an equal basis with men, were entitled to vote in any election, run for election to any office, and hold any public office or exercise any public function under national law.the 1950s the Commission turned its attention on the issue of discrimination in marriage. UN reports revealed that discrimination against women was frequently due to differences between national laws on family residence, marriage and divorce. The Commission embraced this problem by drafting the Convention on the Nationality of Married Women (adopted on 29 January 1957), followed by the Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (adopted on 7 November 1962), and the Recommendation on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages (adopted on 1 November 1965). Together these measures represent the first international agreements on womens rights in relation to marriage that were adopted by the UN.the same period, the Commission worked with UNESCO to develop programs and advocate for increasing women's literacy and equality in access to education. It also undertook work on womens economic rights: a study launched in collaboration with the International Labor Organization (ILO) led to the 1951 Convention on Equal Remuneration for Men and Women Workers for Work of Equal Value, which enshrined the principle of equal pay for work of equal value.the early 1950s, the Commission also began focusing on the issue of traditional practices harmful to women and girls. Thanks to the Commissions efforts, resolutions were adopted by the ECOSOC in 1952 and the General Assembly in 1954 urging Member States to take measures to abolish practices that violated the physical integrity and human rights of women. However, traditional practices remained a sensitive issue and it would not be until the mid-1980s that female genital mutilation/cutting, for instance, would be recognized as a form of violence against women.1975 the UN has held a series of world conferences on women's issues, starting with the World Conference of the International Women's Year in Mexico City. These conferences created an international forum for women's rights, but also illustrated divisions between women of different cultures and the difficulties of attempting to apply principles universally.World Conferences have been held, the first in Mexico City (International Women's Year, 1975), the second in Copenhagen (1980) and the third in Nairobi (1985). At the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing (1995), The Platform for Action was signed. This included a commitment to achieve «gender equality and the empowerment of women».1995, the Commission on the Status of Women has also developed its catalytic role in support of gender mainstreaming. The schedule for consideration by the Commission of the 12 critical areas of concern of the Platform for Action took into account follow-up reworks of other international development conferences, which increased the potential for gender mainstreaming in these processes. The Commission has also made available the outcome of its work to other functional commissions-such as the Commission on Sustainable Development in 1997 and the Commission on Human Rights in 1998. For theSummit on Sustainable Development, held in 2002 in Johannesburg, the Commission forwarded its agreed conclusions on environmental management and the mitigation of natural disasters. In 2003, it provided its agreed conclusions on participation in and access of women to the media, and information and communication technologies and their impact on and use as an instrument for the advancement and empowerment of women to the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Geneva.its sixty years of existence and its fifty sessions, the Commission on the Status of Women has consistently promoted the advancement of women. It has been instrumental in expanding the recognition of womens rights, in documenting the reality of womens lives throughout the world, in shaping global policies on gender equality and empowerment of women and in ensuring that the work of the UN is all areas incorporates a gender perspective. It continues to play a critical role by bringing together Governments, UN entities, NGOs, and other international and regional organizations to promote womens rights and advance gender equality.

• 171. Women in the History of Britain
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  Women were seen by many to be inferior to men during the middle ages. The church taught them that they should be meek and obedient to their fathers and husbands. In reality however very few of the women could stay quietly at home because most had to work for a living in the fields beside their husbands and fathers whilst at the same time feeding and clothing their families. The wives and daughters of craftsmen were frequently employed and operated as tradeswomen in their own right. However very few women became powerful enough to have any bearing on national events.the towns, women worked in a variety of occupations. They might be shopkeepers, spinners, bakers or "alewives" who brewed ale. Both married and unmarried women were expected to work for a living, Often they would combine several jobs as they were paid less than men.single women often wore their hair loose but married women were expected to keep their hair covered at all times in a linen "wimple" as a sign of modesty. Single women often earned a living from spinning cotton, using hand held spindles (the spinning wheel didn't arrive from India until the 13th Century). They subsequently became known as spinsters and this name has stuck over the years to mean unmarried woman.unmarried women entered convents and nunneries where they lived their lives in a similar way to a monk. Nunneries offered women the opportunity to lead a devout life and also to obtain an education and take on responsibilities denied to them in the outside world. As local landowners and employers, many abbesses were important figures in the community.fact landowners be they male or female were powerful figures in medieval society, and an unmarried woman of property had an equal right to men. She could make a will and sign documents with her own seal. However when a woman married she forfeit all her land and rights to her husband. On his death she was entitled to one third of his land upon which to support herself.Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting periods in English History. The names of famous Kings scatter the History books. But behind every famous King of the Middle Ages was a famous woman - the Medieval Queens or Princesses. Who were the women who were the wives of these famous English Kings? Which famous women of the Middle Ages married men such as William the Conqueror, Richard the Lionheart, King Henry II and King Edward III? Who were the women who ruled during the Hundred Years War between England and France? What were the names of the women who helped to rule the Royal Houses of Lancaster and York during the Wars of the Roses? These Middle Ages women who included many Queens and Princesses and mistresses who shared the most powerful positions with their husbands and lovers. Many held extremely important influence over their sons. The Medieval women of the Middle Ages had to be strong their lives cover the vicious Medieval periods from 1066 - 1485. Learn about the Mystics and the Mistresses, the Rich and the poor women of the Middle Ages. The women of the Middle Ages were totally dominated by the male members of their family. The women were expected to instantly obey not only their father, but also their brothers and any other male members of the family. Any unruly girls were beaten into submission and disobedience was seen as a crime against religion. The following section details the life, marriage and children of noble women in the Middle Ages. If we use only the writings of chroniclers, we are left to assume that a woman's main importance was in connection with marriage and children. Household accounts furnish great detail on the life of a noblewoman especially on her style of living, her social connections, and her standing within the community. The public sphere was considered to be the domain of men. This sphere included politics, legal rights and obligations, and the market. Therefore, this seems to have been the sphere of real power and authority. The private (domestic) sphere was generally considered the domain of woman. The private sphere included wives, mothers, family, and immediate household. The information above helps us understand why women had little access to public power but it also shows us why it was necessary for women to sometimes use other means to control their surroundings to their desired end. A point to think on is, we should not underestimate the fact that a woman's self-interest may have been the driving force in her pursuit of influence (power). The use of affection within her household gave her influence because it could directly result in loyalty to her. Wifely persuasion could be used as in the instance of convincing a spouse to donate funds to the church. Her offspring could also be influenced through her motherly guidance. One not so attractive, her use of sexual attraction to influence not only her husband but also other members of the opposite sex, may work to her benefit.the public realm, participation in politics and public offices was restricted to men. Women could not be tithing representatives, be pledges in court, bring litigation, or plead courts until a widow and termed "femme sole". They were also excluded from the office of aletester regardless of the fact that they, as brewers, were best qualified and most knowledgeable. Enforcement records of the assize of bread and ale show that women were some of the most active of commercial brewers and bakers in the countryside. This again, is an example of the importance at the time of barring women from powerful positions. A woman's public power however, always stopped short of sanctioned authority.was an actual life cycle to a woman's authority. As a maid, her power grew with the inheritance of land. As a wife, this power waned with marriage. With her marriage, her lands and legal status went to her husband. As a widow, it increased again by becoming the head of the household. Widows, owed suit to court, answered complaints and pursued litigation without the intervention of a man. Widows were sought after for marriage. If a man could convince a widow to marry him it could mean an increase in power and wealth among influential families for himself and his family. Once widowed, she was responsible for her own lands until she remarried. Many chose to remain widows, a reasonable choice under the circumstances. She was restricted but not as oppressed as movies and many romantic fiction novels would have us believe. Medieval women were very similar to the women of today, looking out for the interests of her family and working to have a voice in her society.

• 172. Women’s movement in Australia
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  The most fundamental factor is the contradictions between the promises of capitalism and the actual experience of ordinary people. On the one hand there is the myth of equality before the law, the romantic idea of everlasting love in monogamous marriage, the emphasis on our «individuality» to name just a few. However the class divisions in society and the fact that exploitation and oppression demean people means these myths make a mockery of most peoples lives. There is a popular idea that people will only fight back when their lives become unbearable as a result of falling living standards. But the process by which people resist is much more complex. Lack of power breeds lack of confidence. But in the long post-war boom, rising living standards actually raised levels of confidence. The fact of the boom moved people to expect more from life than previous generations. But of course, bosses and governments shared no such aspirations. But also, it increasingly became evident that in spite of the boom, racism, and other forms of oppression would not be wiped out without a fight. One of the first signs of this recognition was the Civil Rights Movement in the US. This in turn highlighted the need to struggle to others. For instance, it was the US Civil Rights Movement that inspired mostly white, and one black university student, Charles Perkins, to organise a «Freedom Ride» from Sydney University around the outback NSW towns where antiAboriginal racism was rife. This led to increased anti-racist activity. Again, the Womens Liberation Movement arose from the contradictions highlighted by the boom. As women were pulled into the workforce in growing numbers, as contraception became available, and more women entered tertiary education, especially as teachers (pulled in by a shortage of teachers in an expanding education system), the idea that they should be content to be housewives and mothers began to come unstuck. It is not insignificant that it was working class women, many of whom had been influenced by the Communist Party of Australia (CPA), that hit the headlines in 1969 protesting over equal pay. Working alongside men, catching public transport where they paid the same fares, but being paid less, facing the problems of childcare while experiencing discrimination at work drove an at first tiny minority to take a stand.

• 173. Word order and inversion
  Другое Иностранные языки

  Some languages do not have a fixed word order. In these languages there is often a significant amount of morphological marking to disambiguate the roles of the arguments; however there are also languages in which word order is fixed even though the degree of marking would enable free word order, and languages with free word order, such as some varieties of Datooga, which have free word order combined with a lack of morphological distinction between arguments. Typologically there is a trend that highly animate actors are more likely to be topical than low-animate undergoers, this trend would come through even in free-word-order languages giving a statistical bias for SO order (or OS in the case of ergative systems, however ergative systems do not usually extend to the highest levels of animacy, usually giving way to some form of nominative system at least in the pronominal system)[8]. Most languages with a high degree of morphological marking have rather flexible word orders such as Latin, Hungarian, Russian (in intransitive clauses), and Finnish. In some of those, a canonical order can still be identified, but in others this is not possible.[citation needed]

  1. Armenian

• 174. Word stress in English
  Другое Иностранные языки

  Cases of variable stress placement caused by the context is known as stressshift. When a word of several syllables has a stress near the end of thc word, and is followed by another word with stress near its beginning, there is a tendency for the stress in the first word to move nearer the beginning if it contains a syllable that is capable of receiving stress, e.g. the word academic in isolation usually has the stress or the penultimate syllable /-dem-/. However, when the word year follows, the stress often found to move to the first syllable /k-/; the whole phrase academic year will have the primary stress on the word year, so the resulting stress pattern will be academic year. In isolation, we say fundamental and Japanese with primary stress on -ment and -nese, in connected speech these words may have a different pattern: greater stress on fund- and Jap-.

• 175. Word structure in modern english
  Другое Иностранные языки

  However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [r?-], [d?-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [r?-] or [d?-], nor the [-te?n] or [-s?:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [r?-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-te?n] distinguishes retain from receive.

• 176. Working capital
  Другое Иностранные языки

  's where - playing one turnover; Days - Number of days in a year (usually take 360); Circuit - the load factor of current assets. Load factor current assets enables to estimate the amount of current assets to 1 USD sales. Less current means used for the production of products sold per 1 USD, the rational and better use them. Actually, all three indices are identical, but each of them differently expressed: the first - in quality ratio, the second - in the days of turnover, the third - in terms of money. Thus, the auxiliary parameters are derived from the ratio of the same and characterize the effectiveness of current assets, just with different positions [2, sec. 239] Planning of working capital is subject to estimates of production costs and non-production needs and business plan that covers and connects the industrial and financial performance, creating just that the conditions for successful business operations and business development.purpose of the functioning of current assets is to maintain continuity of the production process. But this continuity may in each case supported by the different amount of current assets. At the same time know that this must achieve a minimum number. To evaluate the efficiency of current use of certain figures (turnover ratio, load factor, the length of one turnover, profitability) and to increase efficiency - appropriate methods (optimization of inventory and work in progress, reducing the duration of the production cycle, improvement of logistics; acceleration time of production). This acceleration of turnover contribute: first, to increase production per unit operating costs of the enterprise and, secondly, the release of drugs, and therefore - to create additional reserves to expand production In accordance with the composition, structure and availability of working capital and planned production volume of business can make profits with minimal costs. If underreporting of working capital available to supply disruptions and production process, reducing output and income of arrears and debt, other negative phenomena in economic activities.excess of current assets leads to the accumulation of over dimensional inventory of raw materials, erosion of savings, and conditions for use of working capital for other purposes. [11, sec. 289 - 291] Management of working capital consists in ensuring the continuity of the process of production and sales with the least amount of working capital. This means that the company's current assets should be distributed throughout all stages of the cycle in the appropriate form and in a minimal but sufficient. In today's environment where businesses are self-financed in full, the correct definition of requirements for working capital is of particular importance.process of developing commercially reasonable quantities of working capital needed for normal operation of the enterprise, called the valuation of current assets. Thus, standardization of working capital is to determine the amounts of working capital needed to form a permanent minimum and at the same time, sufficient material values, the minimum balance in progress and other current assets. Normalization of working capital facilitates the identification of internal reserves, shortening the production cycle, faster realization of finished products. [10, sec. 174] Pertain to the working capital that are in inventory, work in progress, quantities of finished products to the enterprise. This normalized working capital. Other elements of working capital are called irregular. In the process of normalization of working capital define norms and standards of working capital. Normalization value of current assets is as follows., the correct definition of the standard working capital provides continuity and uninterrupted production process. Second, regulation of working capital enables efficient use of working capital for each enterprise. Thirdly, the right of the established norms of working capital depends on the plan of production, sales, profits and profitability. Fourth, comprehensive standards of working capital contribute to strengthening the economy, and minimize business risk. Rate of working capital in relation to raw materials and semifinished products purchased includes: transport of reserve time for acceptance, unloading, sorting, storing materials, technology stock, current (warehouse) stock; warranty (insurance) stock.stock is defined as the difference between being in the way of cargo from suppliers to customers and post run time of settlement documents and their clearance by the shipper and the banks handling the location of the provider and consumer. [17, sec. 151] If the raw materials delivered to the consumer before the arrival of payment documents (or these processes overlap in time), the vehicle stock is not established. Preparatory stock - this time for acceptance, unloading, sorting, storing materials.stock includes the time for preparatory operations (timber drying, grinding scrap, cutting out materials), unless they are part of the production cycle. Rate of technological stock is determined by concrete conditions of each enterprise and a period of preparatory operations. Current stock - floating rate funds in the stock of the current depends on the frequency and regularity of supply of materials, uniformity of consumption in production. What they often come to the consumer, the smaller will be the current stock. In the normal working capital, normally included average current stock of 50% duration interval between deliveries. The interval is determined based on supply contracts with suppliers or based on actual data on the flow of the previous period. [17, sec. 151 - 152] 2.2. Own sources and management of working capital, the minimum needs in current assets covered by such own sources: the authorized capital (fund), contributions from special revenue funds in the value of , targeted funding and target revenues (from the budget, sectoral and inter-budgetary funds), the gain constant liabilities. Companies that are in force, form the revolving funds from the budget, equity contributions of the founding members, contributions of foreign participants (for joint ventures), the proceeds from the issue of securities.funds are included in the statutory fund start-ups. [18, sec. 162] According to the sources of working capital divided into: own funds, including: share capital, share capital, additional capital is invested, other additional capital, surplus, retained earnings, earmarking; liabilities, short-term bank loans, current long-term debt obligations. We know that quite a number of objective reasons (inflation, output growth) in the enterprise's always a need for additional working capital. Because the company uses borrowed money: banking and commercial loans, bond loans. Along with bank loans sources of working capital may also be commercial loans of other companies and organizations that are issued as loans, promissory notes, trade credits, advances. Companies also use investment tax credits, that is temporarily deferred tax liability. For the investment tax credit company enters into an agreement with the Tax Administration; attracted additional sources, which include: accounts payable for goods, works, services, and ongoing commitment to advances received, payments to the budget, payments, insurance payments, with remuneration of members, other current liabilities, provisions for doubtful debts, charitable and other income [11, sec. 389] The order of the formation of a current asset in the business depends on ownership, the basis for the functioning of the enterprise, its specific organizational structure and other factors. Dimensions and enriching their own floating funds annually in the financial plan. However, the size of their current assets that are fixed by now, is not constant.financial condition of the enterprise depends on how quickly the funds invested in assets, converted to real money. The most important indicators of economic activity - income and the volume of sales - are directly dependent on the speed of rotation of working capital.of rotation of working capital is important for stability of the financial condition of the company, due to three main reasons:

• 177. Would lower oil prices be good or bad news for the world economy
  Другое Иностранные языки

  Depreciation of prices on oil would be beneficial for the countries, importing and consuming oil. Among the top oil consumers there are such countries, dependent on oil, as the United States, which by 2007 were consuming 20,680,000 barrels a day, from which over 13 mln barrels are imported. But not as much for the US (because fall in oil prices would also be a bad news for them as producers of oil), but for such countries, trying to get out of economys recession, as Ireland, which is from 2008 trying to get out of recession (recent figures for GDP = -1,28% by January 2010), Italy ( which is also getting out of recession with current GDP rates of -0,3%, while its oil imports are over 1,7 mln barrels a day), Greece, which economy is also in trouble and other oil consuming countries. As oil becomes cheaper, the country spends less on importing oil, and the money saved are spent on government spending, therefore the national GDP grows as well as peoples material living standards, and the economy gets out of recession and high unemployment rates in the country.

• 178. Young people’s problems
  Другое Иностранные языки

• 179. Аustrаliаn Lаbor Pаrty
  Другое Иностранные языки

  In Nеw Zеаlаnd thе АSU аttеmptеd to orgаnisе Mаori shеаrеrs, who wеrе sееn аs potеntiаlly “stаunch аnd еnthusiаstic” unionists. Thе unions rulеs wеrе trаnslаtеd into Mаori. Thе АSU pаpеr, Thе Hummеr, еxposеd thе tеrriblе conditions for Аboriginеs on pаstorаl propеrtiеs in WА. Аboriginеs wеrе еxеmpt from thе rаcist еxclusion clаusе аnd аt thе 1891 АSU confеrеncе thе Аdеlаidе brаnch movеd to аdmit Аboriginеs for hаlf thе normаl fее. А compromisе wаs rеаchеd: Аboriginеs rеcеivеd full bеnеfits by pаymеnt of аn аnnuаl contribution, without thе еntrаncе fее. Support for Аboriginаl rights mаy hаvе bееn еxpеctеd from militаnts. Whаt is most rеvеаling is thе stаncе of thе modеrаtе Gеnеrаl Sеcrеtаry Dаvid Tеmplе. Tеmplе аrguеd it would bе а “grаcеful аct to thosе from whom thе country hаd bееn tаkеn” аnd would bе good for thе unions imаgе. This clеаrly indicаtеs thаt workеrs wеrе nowhеrе nеаr аs rаcist аs commonly contеndеd, for if thеy wеrе how could it bе good for thе АSUs imаgе to givе “privilеgеs” to Аboriginеs? Most workеrs wеrе, of coursе, opеn to rаcist idеаs. Thе point is thаt it wаs аlwаys possiblе to chаllеngе such idеаs аnd win а hеаring. Аs did thе rеvolutionаriеs of thе Industriаl Workеrs of thе World who cаmpаignеd аgаinst rаcism prior to World Wаr I аnd thе Communist Pаrty from its formаtion in thе еаrly 1920s.

• 180. Аборт и беременность молодых девушек
  Другое Иностранные языки

  It is true that pregnancy influences all aspects of teenage life, so a pregnant girl faces various psychological difficulties, let alone educational difficulties. Pregnancy and a child at this age can prevent a girl from receiving good education and impede future perspectives, future career. And nowadays, women tend to achieve as much in their professional life, as men does, thus, many of them turn to abortion in their chase of something larger than simple family life. The author of this article also pays attention to this important aspect, and I can't but agree to him. In these circumstances the decision of abortion is made in the best interest of a child and a pregnant mother. In my opinion, children should grow up in the atmosphere of love, in the family of mature parents, who are financially, psychologically and socially strong. What can a teenage mother give to her child, when she is still a 'child' herself? I think not too much, at least she is not able to give her/him the most necessary things, because she is not old enough to be a real mother for a child.

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