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121. The Balmain ironworkers' strike of 1945
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But frіctіon bеtwееn Communіsts аnd othеr mеmbеrs of thе unіon іn Bаlmаіn wаs not confіnеd to thе job. 1943 sаw а vіolеnt collіsіon bеtwееn thе Fеdеrаl lеаdеrshіp аnd thе Bаlmаіn brаnch еxеcutіvе аnd brаnch mеmbеrs. Thе unіon, whіch hаd bеgun thе protrаctеd procеss of аmаlgаmаtіon wіth thе Munіtіon Workеrs' Unіon, hаd sеt up а Nаtіonаl Еxеcutіvе Councіl to аct аs а commіttее of mаnаgеmеnt for thе combіnеd unіons. Аt thе NЕC mееtіng of Mаy 11-12 аt whіch Brown аnd Stееlе (Brаnch Prеsіdеnt) аnd Lееhy (Fеdеrаl Councіlor from Bаlmаіn) wеrе prеsеnt by іnvіtаtіon, thе Gеnеrаl Prеsіdеnt McHеnry submіttеd а rеport on bеhаlf of Lееhy аnd hіmsеlf on thе workіng of thе brаnch аnd proposеd thаt а nаtіonаl offіcеr contіnuе to аttеnd mееtіngs for thе nеxt thrее months.25 Іmprovеmеnt іn thе work of thе brаnch wаs notеd іn dіscussіon, but аt thе NЕC on July 7 McHеnry wаs complаіnіng thаt еvеnts аt а rеcеnt brаnch mееtіng hаd cаusеd hіm concеrn аnd іndіcаtеd аn unsаtіsfаctory stаtе of аffаіrs. Brown, Stееlе аnd Hаrold Johnson (thе Аssіstаnt Sеcrеtаry) wеrе іnvіtеd to аttеnd thе mееtіng on thе nеxt dаy аnd wеrе quеstіonеd. Thе аnswеrs clеаrly dіd not sаtіsfy thе councіl bеcаusе іt concludеd thаt thе rеport on Bаlmаіn showеd unsаtіsfаctory fеаturеs, but іn ordеr to gеt morе іnformаtіon аbout thе brаnch аnd іts workіng thе councіl would conduct аn іnquіry.26 Thіs would bе cаrrіеd out by NЕ offіcеrs аnd thе brаnch wаs іnvіtеd to еlеct four rеprеsеntаtіvеs аt thе nеxt gеnеrаl mееtіng to tаkе pаrt іn thе іnquіry. Іt іs dіffіcult to fіnd out whаt wеrе thе еxаct poіnts of McHеnry's crіtіcіsm. Thе councіl mіnutеs аrе quіtе unіnformаtіvе. А lаtеr аccount of thе dіsputе іn Lаbor Nеws (formеrly Thе Іronworkеr) clаіmеd thаt thеrе hаd bееn іntеrfеrеncе by brаnch offіcіаls wіth thе rіghts of mеmbеrs to еlеct thеіr own shop stеwаrds аnd аlso thаt Stееlе аs brаnch prеsіdеnt hаd not chаіrеd mееtіngs іmpаrtіаlly.27 Thе quеstіon of fіnаncіаl mаlprаctіcе, whіch fіgurеd so lаrgеly іn thе rеtrospеctіvе chаrgеs аgаіnst thе Bаlmаіn offіcеrs аftеr thеіr dеposіtіon, doеs not sееm to hаvе bееn rаіsеd. Thе mіnutеs of thе brаnch mееtіng thаt hаd cаusеd McHеnry's concеrn rеvеаl thе mаrkеd unwіllіngnеss of brаnch lеаdеrs to аccеpt еіthеr Fеdеrаl offіcе dіrеctіvеs (on how dеlеgаtеs to thе АLP confеrеncе wеrе to votе), or аdvіcе (on аn іndustrіаl clаіm mаdе by Orіglаss on bеhаlf of mеn аt Mort's).28
122. The basic methods of psychological research
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organization of the natural experiment also may use technical means (but if the examinee does not know about it). For the correct and successful natural experiment to observe all those requirements, which are submitted to the laboratory experiment. According to the research goals experimenter selects the following conditions which provide the most vivid manifestation of certain sides of mental activity. Methods of survey interwork, questionnaire, interwork Very often there is a need for data that can not be obtained by observation and experiment. These data provide methods of questioning. Methods of survey are divided into: · Optic survey - interworks; · Part survey - questionnaires. These methods are used after the formation of hypotheses and a plan of study. Interworks are used, usually after questioning, and they both used after the experiment. Interwork in psychology is the way to a social and psychological information through verbal questioning. In the history of the interwork as a psychological method can distinguish three main stages of development: 1) first interwork was used in psychotherapy and psycho, in turn, this contributed to the emergence of psychological consultation; 2) the use of interworks in sociological and social-psychological research, where he first emerged on the validity of methods of organizing and conducting interworks and accuracy of the information obtained; 3) the current stage of psychological research is characterized by the coordination of practical, theoretical and methodological problems of the interwork in order to use it as a special method of obtaining information through verbal communication. Types of interworks: 1. Free - no regulated subject and form of conversation, not standardized. Provides pre-formulation, which can be changed in the survey. The researcher can follow the general plan of the interwork, it may hold in a free form. Advantage - provides a more natural response, deeper understanding of the phenomenon. Disadvantage - the difficulty of quantitative information processing 2. Standardized - in form it is close to a questionnaire with closed questions. Characterized by well thought-through questions that are put to all respondents in the same wording and order. Questions and their order can not be changed. Advantage - easy to compare results and quantifiable treatment. Disadvantage - the lack of flexibility in setting questions. 3. Napivstandartyzovane - compensating for the shortcomings of both types of interworks to include mandatory questions and variables. Required are all respondents and variables - depending on the depth of their answers. However, the boundaries between these types of interworks are mobile and depend on the complexity of the problem, objectives and the research phase. The degree of freedom is due to interwork the participants list and the form of questions, the notional level of information received - richness and complexity of responses. During the conversation may obtain different situations on the position of the interworker: a) the respondent knows why he acted or should act, and not otherwise; b) the respondent is not enough information about the reasons of their own actions; c) the interworker aims to get symptomatic information although the respondent did not evaluate it as such. Or that the situation involves the use of different methods of interworking. In the first case is sufficient to use an orderly, well-directed series of questions. In two other situations require methods that involve the cooperation of the respondent in the process of finding relevant information. Examples of such methods is the clinical interwork and diagnostic interworks. Diagnostic interworks - a method of obtaining information about individual properties used in the early stages of psychotherapy. This method serves as a special means of establishing close personal contact with the interlocutor. In many situations, clinical work, he is an important way to penetrate the patient's inner world and understanding of its difficulties. There are: 1) controlled - from fully programmed (by type of questionnaire - unchanging and unchangeable strategy tactics) to completely free (constant strategy and tactics is free); 2) uncontrolled, "confessional" where the initiative belongs to the patient. In clinical practice, fully standardized diagnostic interwork is used very rarely. Clinical interworks - a method of therapeutic conversations in the case of psychological help. In psychiatry, psychoanalysis and medical psychology, this method is used to help the patient understand its internal difficulties, conflicts, hidden motives. The clinical interwork is the most free form of conversation, in conversations of this type of psychologist is interested not only direct patient response content (facts, opinions, feelings, verbal number - Dictionary, association of ideas, etc.), but his behavior (tone, gestures, movements etc...) An important prerequisite for successful implementation of the method is to establish positive personal relationships between members of the conversation, which requires the psychologist to be patient, resourceful, to adapt to the interests of the patient. In some cases, the method may have a direct effect of psychotherapy, with the patient not only understands the reasons for their difficulties, but also identifies ways to overcome them. The overall strategy and progress of the method are based on preliminary data and so the diagnosis.- a method of psychosocial research by using structural and organized questions, each of which is associated with the purposes and objectives of research - questionnaires. Depending on the nature of the necessary information and ways to obtain various types of questionnaire: - Solid (covered by large groups of people); - Sample (covered by a specific group of participants); - Oral (by type of interwork); - Writing (work with blank questionnaires); - Individual and group; - Full-time (by direct interaction); - Correspondence (mail, telephone, media, etc.). The process of drawing up the questionnaire - the translation of basic hypotheses persuasion questions. This procedure requires knowledge of types of questions, ability to formulate them in sequence.of questions: 1. Those who find the facts. Put the end of the questionnaire; 2. Those facts show that the behavior, acts of the respondent; 3. Those who find the attitude of the respondent to objects, objects, and its possible actions and their causes. In a separate group of distinguished projective questions when respondent offered a set of situations that can happen with him. Interrogator calls his behavior. These questions are intended to penetrate into the motivation of the respondent to reveal his intentions, thoughts. Questions may be: · Open - the nature, shape, type of advance is not provided; · Closed - with options of possible answers. Chosen only one; · Semiclosed - chosen one or more answers, the respondents should express their opinion. The structure of the questionnaire: 1. Introduction - appeal to the respondent, which indicates who conducted the survey and how the results will be used. Emphasizing the importance of the answers, guaranteed anonymity, specified rules. 2. The main part - Issues relating to research. First are those that are interested in questioning; then - the most complex, designed to clarify thoughts, estimates at the end - the most personal, test questions (specification information). 3. The demographic part - questions about the objective status of individuals (sex, age, education, etc.). Principles of Form: - Fixing of the most significant questions; - The wording of questions should be clear to all respondents according to their level of knowledge; - Questions should be formulated so that they could answer in principle; - Should facilitate complete information; - Should cause a positive reaction, a desire to answer. Application should provide such a response that is true and on surveys and problems, which is the subject of study. Questionnaire is based on theoretical ideas about the nature of the subject of study, according to this grading scale chosen, the types of questions to determine the number and order of questions that are treated. Also in a case study selected the most adequate procedure of questioning with regard to all the circumstances of the situation of cognitive act. Each separate type of survey provides a research situation, and the structure of the questionnaire, including the consistency and richness of emotional issues, means of processing and analyzing data. Conversation - the method of establishing mental features in the process of direct communication. Helps identify the particular character, motives, attitudes. Widely used in various fields of psychology: social, medical, pediatric, and others. In some cases, the conversation is the main means of obtaining factual information is also used as input in guinea situation of psychological experimentation: of clear instructions to communicate freely in the psychotherapy situation.of the conversation:
123. The basical macroeconomics indicators
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124. The biography and Charles Dickens's creativity
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Pip's first encounter with Miss Havisham and Estella is a strange one. He discovers Miss Havisham is a shut-in who has boarded up the windows around the entire house so as not to allow any light in. She remains seated in a tattered chair where she instructs Pip to play cards with Estella. Here, Estella is cruel to Pip, calls him names and laughs at him. Miss Havisham seems to delight in this ill-treatment of Pip and asks him repeatedly what he thinks of Estella in turn by whispering it in her ear. Miss Havisham continuously praises Estella for her pride and her beauty. Hurt and angry, Pip leaves Satis House to walk the grounds and cries. Estella brings him food however she begins to make fun of him again as she sees that he has been crying and teases him for doing so. Outside, Pip is accosted by a young man of about the same age who tries to engage him in a fight. He calls Pip out but Pip refuses to fight with him at first, however, after this has gone on for a time, Pip swings at and strikes the young man, knocking him to the ground. The young man repeatedly encourages Pip to hit him even though he is clearly losing and becoming increasingly battered and bloody. After the fight is over, the two part ways; Estella, having seen the fight, lets Pip kiss her, excited that two young men are fighting for her, and he returns to the forge. Pip's first encounter with Miss Havisham and Estella is a strange one.Pip realizes that he is in love with Estella. Pip behaves badly in society (mostly over jealousy of Estella) and squanders his allowance, running into debt. He is rescued on his 21st birthday, when he is notified by Jaggers that he is awarded 500 pounds (equal to £36,000 today) and an increased steady allowance, until such a time as his benefactor will appear and make himself known to Pip. Pip originally believes Miss Havisham is his benefactress. For several years Estella had been studying abroad in Europe. Upon her return, Pip finds Estella much changed and her attitude refined. She apologizes for her earlier cruelty however, seeing Pip's affections warns him that he should not fall in love with her. Pip ignores these repeated warnings as he long harbored the belief that Miss Havisham (as his benefactress) intended them for each other. Estella continues to warn him that her heart is cold and cannot love him and entreats him to take her seriously, but he refuses, still believing they will be married and that her heart is not as cold as she claims. During this time, Mrs. Joe dies. Pip's benefactor turns out to be instead Abel Magwitch, the convict whom Pip helped, who had been transported toNew South Wales, where he had eventually prospered and become extremely wealthy. Magwitch left all his money to Pip in gratitude for that kindness and also because Pip reminded him of his own child, whom he believes to have been killed by her mother over two decades prior.However, Magwitch now expects to spend the rest of his life living with Pip in England. Pip, very reluctantly, lets Magwitch stay with him. There is a warrant out for Magwitch's arrest in England and he will be hanged if he is caught in the country. Pip becomes increasingly suspicious of being watched and tells his landlord and all other close people that Magwitch is an uncle by the name of Provis.During these events, it is revealed to Pip that Estella is the daughter of Mr. Jaggers' housemaid, Molly, whom he defended in a murder charge and who gave up her daughter to be adopted by another of his clients, Miss Havisham, in return for his service in allowing her to be acquitted of the charge. Pip later realizes Magwitch is Estella's father.Shortly before Magwitch and Pip are scheduled to flee, Pip receives an unsigned note at his home telling him to appear at the marshes near his old home that night at 9pm. Pip is timid at first, but the letter mentions his "Uncle Provis" and threatens his safety. Pip is lured in by the threats to his benefactor and leaves for the village by carriage immediately. On the marshes, Pip is struck on the head by a blunt object, rendering him unconscious for a period of time. When he awakens, he finds himself bound in a small shack far away from any other residences. It is revealed that both the author of the anonymous note and his attacker is Orlick, who admits that he was in fact the one who attacked Mrs. Joe. Orlick confides that he intends to kill Pip as he was always jealous of young Pip when he worked with Joe and for Pip's intervention with his advances on Biddy. Pip is sure he is going to die though he refuses to cry out or beg for mercy. Pip is rescued by Herbert, a village shop boy. Meanwhile, out of spite for Miss Havisham, Estella has married Bentley Drummle, a boastful rival of Pip's whom he very much dislikes.Pip, Herbert and another friend, Startop, make a gallant attempt to help Magwitch escape, but instead he is captured and sent to jail. Pip is devoted to Magwitch by now and recognizes in him a good and noble man and is ashamed that he had formerly looked down on Magwitch as his inferior. Pip tries to have Magwitch released but Magwitch dies shortly before his execution. Under English law Magwitch's wealth forfeits to the Crown, thus extinguishing Pip's "Great Expectations". During an extended period of sickness, Pip is nearly arrested for his numerous unpaid debts to several creditors however due to his condition, which includes fever, he is not arrested at that time. During this illness, he is looked after by Joe and he eventually returns to good health. Joe leaves early one morning leaving Pip with only a note of well-wishes, believing that as Pip had not visited him in years since, he would not visit him then and that he likely would never see Pip again. Pip is greatly saddened by this turn of events and realizes how thankless and ungrateful he had been over the years. His guilt is compounded by the discovery that the police did not leave to allow Pip time to recover, but because Joe had paid all of his debts in full. Pip returns home to ask Biddy and Joe for forgiveness and to thank Joe for his unprovoked kindness, and unfailing love for which Pip felt unworthy. When he arrives in the village, he finds that it is Biddy and Joe's wedding day. He congratulates the couple, Afterwards, Pip goes into business overseas with Herbert. After eleven relatively successful years abroad, Pip goes back to visit Joe and the rest of his family out in the marshes. Pip meets Estella on the streets. Her abusive husband Drummle has died. Estella and Pip exchange brief pleasantries and Pip states that while he could not have her in the end, he was at least glad to know she was a different person now, changed from the coldhearted girl Miss Havisham had reared her to be. The novel ends with Pip saying he could see that "suffering had been stronger than Miss Havisham's teaching and had given her a heart to understand what my heart used to be.
125. The Black Death
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Such was the form which the plague assumed in the fourteenth century, for the accompanying chest affection which appeared in all the countries whereof we have received any account, cannot, on a comparison with similar and familiar symptoms, be considered as any other than the inflammation of the lungs of modern medicine, a disease which at present only appears sporadically, and, owing to a putrid decomposition of the fluids, is probably combined with hemorrhages from the vessels of the lungs. Now, as every carbuncle, whether it be cutaneous or internal, generates in abundance the matter of contagion which has given rise to it, so, therefore, must the breath of the affected have been poisonous in this plague, and on this account its power of contagion wonderfully increased; wherefore the opinion appears incontrovertible, that owing to the accumulated numbers of the diseased, not only individual chambers and houses, but whole cities were infected, which, moreover, in the Middle Ages, were, with few exceptions, narrowly built, kept in a filthy state, and surrounded with stagnant ditches. Flight was, in consequence, of no avail to the timid; for even though they had sedulously avoided all communication with the diseased and the suspected, yet their clothes were saturated with the pestiferous atmosphere, and every inspiration imparted to them the seeds of the destructive malady, which, in the greater number of cases, germinated with but too much fertility. Add to which, the usual propagation of the plague through clothes, beds, and a thousand other things to which the pestilential poison adheres--a propagation which, from want of caution, must have been infinitely multiplied; and since articles of this kind, removed from the access of air, not only retain the matter of contagion for an indefinite period, but also increase its activity and engender it like a living being, frightful ill- consequences followed for many years after the first fury of the pestilence was past.
126. The British Character and English Humour
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Between Russian and British I found some common characteristics, such as the famous empire mentality. Great Britain, as we know, was once geographically very great and many British people still think or their land as great an strong. They still think that British is the "best." I can see similar in the Russian attitude. Here. perhaps I am close with my wife, even though she does not like to admit this mentality.
127. The British language teaching
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128. The Business Cycles as a Form of Economic Development
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This cycle is believed to be accounted for by time lags in information movements affecting the decision making of commercial firms. Firms react to the improvement of commercial situation through the increase in output through the full employment of the extent fixed capital assets. As a result, within a certain period of time the market gets flooded with commodities whose quantity becomes gradually excessive. The demand declines, prices drop, the produced commodities get accumulated in inventories, which informs entrepreneurs of the necessity to reduce output. However, this process takes some time. It takes some time for the information that the supply exceeds significantly the demand to get to the businessmen. Further it takes entrepreneurs some time to check this information and to make the decision to reduce production, some time is also necessary to materialize this decision (these are the time lags that generate the Kitchin cycles). Another relevant time lag is the lag between the materialization of the above mentioned decision (causing the capital assets to work well below the level of their full employment) and the decrease of the excessive amounts of commodities accumulated in inventories. Yet, after this decrease takes place one can observe the conditions for a new phase of growth of demand, prices, output, etc.
129. The Clash of Civilizations
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References:
1. Fox, Jonathon. Ethnic minorities and the clash of civilizations: A quantitative analysis of Huntington's thesis. British Journal of Political Science. 32(3). 415-435.
2. Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Anthropology and the politics of significance. Social Analysis. 4(3). 107-138.
3. Huntington. Samuel, 1993. The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3):22-49.
4. Graham, James. May, 2004. Samuel P. Huntington's Clash of Civilisations. www.HistoryOrb.com
5. Samuel P. Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 43.
6. Clash of civilizations. Online resourses from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
7. Shireen T. Hunter, "The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence?", Fouad Ajami, M.E Ahrari, "The Clash of Civilizations: An Old Story or New Truth?", Yuksel Sezgin, "Does Islam Pose A Threat to the West?" Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 2, (June-August 2000)
8. Edward W. Said, "The Clash of Ignorance", The Nation, October 22 2001 and Mahmood Monshipouri, "The West's Modern Encounter With Islam: From Discourse to Reality".
9. Robert Marks, "The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order" (Book Rework).
10. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, "Islam and the West; Testing the Clash of Civilizations Thesis", John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Papers Series (RWP02-015), April 2002, p.14 (http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP02-015/$File/rwp02_015_norris_rev1.pdf)
130. The culture of public speaking
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131. The diabetic diet
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132. The emergence of the first Polish socialist parties
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Part of Polish Socialists (B. Veselovskii) disagreed with the national program of the Party PPP, already in 1893 created a separate political party called the Social Democracy of Poland (SDP), which two years ceased to exist. Magazine "Right Robotnicza became the press organ of the party. Only in January 1900 it was revived and merged with the Workers Union of Lithuania (the union took place at a congress in Minsk), entitled "Social-Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania. The creators of the party were Julian Marhelevsky, Felix Dzerzhinsky, Adolf varsky and the chief party theoretician - Rosa Luxemburg. Program PPP postulate the independence of Poland's leaders SDKPiL considered unattainable utopia because of the full inclusion of lands of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the economic organism of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. However SDKPiL was more important to follow the Marxist ideas of an international struggle of the proletariat for the abolition of capitalism and establish a dictatorship [5, pp.55].
133. The explaining of the meaning of neologism
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The resolving of understanding neologism by the different investigators becomes clear two points of work, concluding in that, that the term of neologism using in new style, as a creating on a new material of language in full corresponding with existing in language kinds of words or word combinations, meaning new, beforehand unknown, unexciting understanding, subject, branch of knowledge, profession and so on, f. e. reaction- ядерный реактор, biocide-биологическая война and so on, in such way as neologism, and exactly in new created synonyms already existing in a word language for the meaning of well known understanding almost semantic and stylistic colours of word, which are based on its general meanings, and already to words in new meaning: for example the word boffin (scientist) presented the synonyms of the word scientist, but it already has another semantic colour and so on. Almost marked some difference in contents of that lexical innovations by the cause of its result, of its stability in language, of its clearness of using, of its future destiny when few of them will fast enter into the language, anothers will be less stabile and can be thrown out of using after some short time.
134. The fastest computers of the world
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135. The Geographical Position of Ukraine
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Nowadays much attention is paid to our youth. The desire of our young people to become qualified specialists in future motivates them to enter higher educational establishments. Higher education for young people nowadays is the method of developing their talents and abilities, their creative potential. That's why beside their studies they are also engaged in different clubs and organizations. A lot of young people go in for sports. That is why schools and institutes have sport clubs and teams. Our young people are especially interested in football, basketball, hockey etc. There also exists a great variety of different clubs in this country. Future belongs to the youth. Many young people are engaged in political parties and organizations such as «the greens», the Union of Ukrainian Youth and others.
136. The Global Money Markets and Money Management
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Technically, and in some countries legally as well, the transfer of a banknote scarcely differs from that of a coin. The similarity of outward appearance is such that those who are engaged in commercial dealings are usually unable to distinguish between those objects that actually perform the function of money and those that are merely employed as substitutes for them. The businessman does not worry about the economic problems involved in this; he is only concerned with the commercial and legal characteristics of coins, notes, checks, and the like. To him, the facts that banknotes are transferable without documentary evidence, that they circulate like coins in round denominations, that no fight of recovery lies against their previous holders, that the law recognizes no difference between them and money as an instrument of debt settlement, seem good enough reason for including them within the definition of the term money, and for drawing a fundamental distinction between them and cash deposits, which can be transferred only by a procedure that is much more complex technic ally and is also regarded in law as of a different kind. This is the origin of the popular conception of money by which everyday life is governed. No doubt it serves the purposes of the bank official, and it may even be quite useful in the business world at large, but its introduction into the scientific terminology of economics is most undesirable.
137. The grammar of contemporary English
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words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called "parts of speech."problem of parts of speech caused much difficulty both in general linguistics and in the analysis of separate languages. Though it has been studied for more than 200 years, the criteria for defining parts of speech have not been worked out yet. Traditionally grammar gave a semantic definition of parts of speech, taking into account only meaning. However, only meaning cannot be a reliable criterion for defining parts of speech because different parts of speech may have the same meaning and vice versa. E.g. the nouns "books", "tables", "students", denote objects and there are nouns as flight", "movement", "arrival", which do not denote objects but belong to nouns. We see that meaning cannot be the only criterion for defining parts of speech. The structural school of linguistics does not take into account meaning only but only form. Form alone cannot be a reliable criterion either because many parts of speech especially in English may have the same form, e.g. water-to water, silk (adj.) - to silk. Moreover, if we take into account only form, then such unchangeable words as article, particle should be referred to only part of speech.see that the criterion of form is not sufficient. The grammatical criterion should be taken into account to give an adequate definition of any part of speech. By grammatical features we mean:)morphological)syntacticalmorphological features different categories are meant. The morphological categories of noun are the categories of number and case. By morphological categories of adjectives we mean the category of quality (degrees of comparison). By syntactical features of the part of speech the syntactical functions of it are meant. The syntactical function is the most reliable criterion. Thus, the modern conception and amended definition of part of speech should take into account all the above mentioned criteria in complex. [4]notion of dividing words into discrete parts of speech is generally credited to the ancient Greek grammarian Dionysius Thrax. For a long time, the idea was pretty much universally accepted. Eventually, grand claims were made for it. The anonymous author of the 1733 book "The English Accidence" called the parts of speech "the foundation upon which the beautiful fabrick of the language stands." John Stuart Mill felt they represented universal categories of human thought.problem with such reverence is that different languages are set up differently. For example, Latin, Russian and Japanese all lack articles. Even in our own tradition, the roster keeps shifting. Thrax counted eight parts: adverbs, articles, conjunctions, nouns, participles, prepositions, pronouns and verbs. The Latin-speaking Romans obviously had to drop articles. Perhaps to keep the eight-part scheme, they added - golly! - interjections. Early formulations of English grammar adopted the Latin list. This presented problems, since English does have articles. There was a lot of shuffling around, until Joseph Priestley's 1761 "Rudiments of English Grammar" finally established the baseball-size lineup that included adjectives and booted out participles. This slate has been generally accepted for the last quarter-millennium and is familiar to the population at large from "Schoolhouse Rock" and the italicized abbreviations (adj., etc.) after words in the dictionary. But for some time there have been rumblings of discontent in the higher reaches of the linguistics community. In the 1920's, Edward Sapir wrote that "no logical scheme of the parts of speech - their number, nature and necessary confines - is of the slightest interest to the linguist." The fact is, any parts-of-speech scheme leaves gaping holes. In the term baseball player, is the word baseball a noun or an adjective? Reasonable people differ on this point. What about the word to in an infinitive like to see? What about the there in there are?day grammarians don't even like to use "parts of speech," preferring "word classes" or "lexical categories." A recent trend has been to accept some fuzziness. Nouns, for example, are often defined by having some or all of a list of capabilities, including being the subject of a sentence or clause, having a plural form or displaying a suffix like "-tion" or "-hood." A word like mother, which does all three, is a very "nouny" noun. Paris, which satisfies only the first, is on the fringes.have also done some major fiddling. Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey Pullum's magisterial 2002 "Cambridge Grammar of the English Language" counts pronouns as a subset of nouns, replaces articles with a new category called "determinatives" (which also includes words like this, some and every) and divides conjunctions into "coordinators" (and, but and or) and "subordinators" (like whether).regardless of name, lexical categories are quite useful. They make possible not only Mad Libs but also the rhetorical device anthimeria - using a word as a noncustomary part of speech - which is the reigning figure of speech of the present moment.'s not to say it's a new thing. In Middle English, the nouns duke and lord started to be used as verbs, and the verbs cut and rule shifted to nouns. Shakespeare was a pro at this; his characters coined verbs - "season your admiration," "dog them at the heels" - and such nouns as design, scuffle and shudder. Less common shifts are noun to adjective (S.J. Perelman's "Beauty Part"), adjective to noun (the Wicked Witch's "I'll get you, my pretty") and adverb to verb (to down a drink)."functional shifting," as grammarians call it, is a favorite target of language mavens, whose eyebrows rise several inches when nouns like impact and access are verbed. Nor do companies like it when their trade names get shifted. In his book "Word Spy," Paul McFedries writes that Google's attorneys send journalists who use google as a verb a stern letter that cites examples of appropriate ("I used Google to check out that guy I met at the party") and inappropriate ("I googled that hottie") uses.'s beyond obvious that Google's lawyers are fighting a losing battle. And they should relax. Not only is "I googled that hottie" great publicity for the company, but it's fresh and funny and an excellent example of how anthimeria gives English an invigorating slap upside the head. At this very moment, the language is being regenerated with phrases like my bad, verbs like dumb down and weird out and guilt ("Don't guilt me") and even the doubly anthimeric "Pimp My Ride," an MTV series in which a posse of artisans take a run-down jalopy and sleek it up into a studly vehicle containing many square yards of plush velvet and an astonishing number of LCD screens.word chill showed up more than 500 years ago as a noun meaning "cold" - as in "winter's chill." In short order, it turned into a verb referring to the process of making someone or something cold and then into an adjective. (Eventually chilly became more common.) Fast-forward to 1979, when the song "Rapper's Delight" worked a variation on Ecclesiastes, explaining that "There's. . .a time to break and a time to chill/To act civilized or act real ill." That intransitive verb, meaning roughly "to relax," was expanded to chill out in 1983, according to The Oxford English Dictionary. The most recent variation in chill can be seen in the basketball player Chamique Holdsclaw's comment about her adoptive city of Los Angeles: "Everything is pretty chill."more rococo anthimerian endeavors have clear meanings, but are more or less im-parse-able. Thus a line from the novel "Afterburn," by Zane: "No matter how hoochie I tried to be, she out-hoochied me every single time." The truly terrifying thing is that one of Zane's other novels has been published in Tokyo, and if "Afterburn" follows suit, someone will have to translate that sentence into Japanese.
138. The Heraldic Symbolism of the Unicorn on the British Coat-of-Arms
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The Union Jack is a fine expression of unity as well as diversity. The British flag incorporates the national symbols of three distinct countries, England, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In fact its name "Union Jack" emphasises the very nature of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland as a union of nations. The flag is also known by another name, this too, emphasising the idea of union: the "Union flag", perhaps a less common term but a little more precise. The countries comprising the British Isles are not inward-looking or isolated states with an insular mentality; together they constitute a powerful union that has spanned centuries. Recent devolution that gave Scotland its own Parliament and Wales its own Assembly has also emphasised the importance of individual national identities within the union without affecting the essential unity of Great Britain. On the contrary, it has strengthened it. Recognition of, and respect for national identities are an essential ingredients for effective union. The Union Jack symbolises all this: respect for individuality within a closely knit community.
139. The History of Alaska (история Аляски)
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140. The history of grammar theory
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Early (Prenormative) Grammars. Until the 17th century the term "grammar" in English was applied only to the study of Latin. This usage was a result of the fact that Latin grammar was the only grammar learned in schools ("grammar" schools) and that until the end of the 16th century there were no grammars of English. One of the earliest and most popular Latin grammars written in English, by William Lily, was published in the first half of the 16th century and went through many editions. This work was very important for English grammar as it set a standard for the arrangement of material and thus Latin paradigms with their English equivalents easily suggested the possibility of presenting English forms in a similar way, using the same terminology as in Latin grammar. A striking example of the two approaches to the description of English is the divergence of works on the problem of English case system. Though Bullokar mentioned 5 cases and in a grammar published in 1749 and reprinted as late as 1819 (Th. Dilworth, A New Guide to the English Tongue) the number of cases both of nouns and adjectives is said to be 6 (as it is in Lily's grammar), in two grammars which appeared during the first half of the 17th century, Ben Jonson's and Ch. Butler's English grammars, the number of cases is two, while in J. Wallis's Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae (1653), which was written in Latin, in spite of the author's intention to break entirely with Latin tradition, the category of case is said to be non-existent and the 's form is defined as a possessive adjective. This work was supported by an early 18th century grammar, attributed to John Brightland. The authors of the second half of the 18th century seemed to prefer the two-case system, which was revived at the end of the 19th century in scientific grammar. In 19th century school grammars a three-case system prevailed.

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