Информация по предмету Иностранные языки

• 21. Constellations of the star sky
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  Not all constellations can be found at once in the sky as many of them consist of weak stars, and only about 30 constellations are accurately allocated with the contours and bright stars. Constellations of the Big Dipper, Pegasa, Kassiopei, Voznichego, the Lion concern them and others. The areas occupied with constellations in the sky, and number of stars in them far are not identical. By the way, we will notice that distances between visible positions of stars in the sky are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds of an arch, and the areas occupied with constellations in the sky, - in square degrees. From bright constellations the greatest on the area is the constellation of the Big Dipper occupying the space in 1280 square degrees and numbering, besides seven bright stars of a ladle, 118 more stars, visible with the naked eye. The most small constellation is in southern hemisphere of the sky and it is not visible in territory of Russia is a beautiful bright constellation of the Southern Cross, the area in 68 square degrees, consisting of five bright and weaker 25 stars. The smallest constellation of northern sky usually do not know, as it consists only of 10 weak stars visible with the naked eye; it is called as constellation of the Small Horse, has the area in 72 square degrees and adjoins southwest border of constellation of Pegasa.

• 22. Consumer behavior
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  As consumer markets become more and more competitive, marketers need to understand very thoroughly both the needs and desires of their potential consumers; which product features can be combined to satisfy these needs and desires. A better knowledge of consumer behavior can enhance the companys understanding of itself and its environment. Product bought by habit and low involvement purchases such as health supplements tend to be purchased more frequently in which provide a greater opportunity for positive reinforcement and brand loyalty. With each successive purchase of the same brand, the chances of consumers buying again increases until there is a high probability that the consumer will continue to repurchase. It is important for marketing management to identify the position of its brand in the market and as the strategic implications of this applies to every aspect of the marketing strategy. Companies selling low-involvement, habitual products such as health supplements must ensure that their products are distributed extensively. This is because the health supplements industry produces high turnover and low margin products. Widespread distribution is important as consumers seeing the products often will help remind them to buy, and it also keeping with the fact that the most consumers purchase the health supplements from a particular store because of the stores convenience. Many health supplements companies have been successful in their distribution of their products. Healtheries has climbed to number on in personal products in the supermarkets, this success is attributed to the channel switching from chemists and health food shops to super market chains. (Marketing, 1999, p.23). Many consumers buy from stores like pharmacies and health food stores because they need to seek more information about the health supplements products; therefore, it is important that the retailers can provide information for their customers. The nature of advertising and promotion also differs according to the involvement level of the purchase. In low-involvement decision process, consumers engage in very little external search before they make a purchase. Therefore it is crucial that consumers immediately think of the companys brand when they recognise a problem.

• 23. Control in management
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• 24. Creation of control system by a personnel how to begin with a zero
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  Thus, if we embark on the first point of our skilled strategy, namely selection, reception and planning of personnel, we must create the row of documents necessarily. In my opinion, it costs to begin from a request on the selection of personnel. These requests actively use to the shot and рекрутингові agencies during work with clients, but rarely internal managers from a personnel, although to no purpose. Yes, on creation of such to the form it is needed to spend little time, but he occupies itself fully. In fact a manager from a personnel clearly presents requirements to the open vacancy and knows that it is possible to offer to the potential candidates. In addition, important is that this request a manager from a personnel fills directly with a leader which then asserts her. Such step in the future will protect the department of work with a personnel from the unnecessary complaining on disparity of the selected candidates to the requirements declared before. In fact if a request is absent, these requirements can several times change, something can призабутися about something simply can forget to warn. And at presence of the ratified request a department from a personnel will know clearly, that is exactly required from a new worker. Thus, if to pass to practice, then such request for us contains next data:

  1. general information is about a vacancy (region and city, branch, department where vacant position, clear name of position, date of filling of request and term of her closing, appeared, even submissions: who a man submits and who will be in her submission);
  2. terms of work (address of job, graphic arts of work, duration of trial period, payment on a trial period and after him, compensative package);
  3. description of position (basic functional promises and other nuances which touch this position);
  4. requirements are to the candidate (general information: age, sex, education; personal and business lines, knowledge and skills);
  5. circle of persons which make decision in relation to a candidate;
  6. except for principal items, a request contains, yet such division as notes (he can be named variously). Here it costs to write some special things, mainly informal which touch a vacancy. For example, features of collective, feature of region and, in accordance with them, wish in relation to the features of candidate and other

• 25. Criticism of Vladimir Propp’s Theory on Genesis of Magic Fairy Tales’ Structure
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  Since the world in its intrinsic definitions depends on a person, for the profound comprehension of the world it becomes obviously necessary to solve the problem of human essence. To put it otherwise, defining the world as projection of humanly significant senses on an objective reality places the emphasis on the very person. Hence in the research there were considered the typological approximations to a person. The first of them gives the person the naturalistic and essential definitions. Usually the essence of a person is defined by the list of the most significant indications, as it is considered, or by leading the concept person under a wider concept (an animal, a being) with its further concretization. Nevertheless, if to recognize, that any of the mentioned intrinsic features of a person is not characteristic for a concrete individual, it unambiguously leads to a conclusion, that the person, who is deprived even of these essential features, actually is not a person. Therefore, the definition of the person as an active animal making the tools of labour, a moral creature, and a being that has religion or a biped animal without feathers etc. cannot be considered satisfactory as there are legless invalids, people who made a vital principle of idleness, people frankly immoral or atheists.

• 26. Development of Composite Insulators for Overhead Lines
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  Brittle fractures, on the other hand, occur mostly near the interface between the insulation material and the end-fitting, and provided this area has been properly manufactured, the probability of their occurrence will be lower than that of electrical aging. To estimate service life from the electrical aspect, actual-scale composite insulators were exposed to electrical stress, and were subjected to an exposure test under a natural environment. A test chamber simulating environmental stress was also constructed, and accelerated tests were carried out according to international standards (IEC 61109 Annex C). Further, by comparing leakage current waveform and cumulative charge, which may be characterized as electrical aging, evaluation of composite insulator service life was carried out. Furthermore, since in Japan, a drop in insulation performance due to rapid pollution during typhoons is a familiar henomenon, an investigation was made based on the characteristics of leakage current obtained during a typhoon into the effect of rapid pollution on electrical aging in composite insulators.

• 27. Double Entry Types of Balance Sheet
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  The balance sheet gives you this work of your equity so that you can see what equity would be if all the cash that is currently committed were already spent. As you rework this figure, bear in mind the following:

  1. Some commitments are firmer than others. For example, a salary commitment for a Classified Civil Service employee will certainly be used, unless the person leaves or reduces work hours. On the other hand, if you have a blanket purchase order, you might have established it for a maximum amount, planning to spend that amount only if absolutely necessary. The first encumbrance is "firm," the second less so. Consequently, you must know your operation well in order to interpret "equity with encumbrances."
  2. Depending on the type of fund, monies are received at different points during the year. For example, Endowment Income and Expense funds receive the major portion of their funding in July. Earnings funds, on the other hand, usually receive revenues at regular intervals during the year. Thus an Endowment Income and Expense fund that has negative "equity with encumbrances" in the early part of the fiscal year is probably of concern, whereas an Earnings fund can begin the year with negative "equity less encumbrances" because it will earn money during the year to offset the commitment

• 28. Double Standards in Modern Politics
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  Critics charge that savvy dictators such as Uganda's president Yoweri Museveni have manipulated U.S. foreign policy by appealing to its need to fight terrorism. Others suggest U.S. should adopt a policy of realpolitik and work with any type of government who can be helpful.

  • Other criticisms. The U.S. has been criticized for its historical treatment of native Americans. For example, the treatment of Cherokee Indians in the Trail of Tears in which hundreds of Indians died in a forced evacuation from their homes in the southeastern area, along with massacres, displacement of lands, swindles, and breaking treaties. It has been criticized for the war with Mexico in the 1840s which some see as a theft of land. It was the first and only nation to use a nuclear bomb in wartime. It failed to admit Jews fleeing persecution from Europe at the beginning of World War II, as well as immoral policy for the Vietnam War.
  • Lack of vision. Brzezinski criticized the Clinton presidency as having a foreign policy which lacked "discipline and passion" and subjected the U.S. to "eight years of drift." The short-term election cycle coupled with the inability to stick with long term decisions motivates presidents to focus on acts which will appease the citizenry and avoid difficult long-term choices.
  • Presidency is over-burdened. Presidents have not only foreign policy responsibilities, but sizeable domestic duties too. In addition, the presidency is the head of a political party. As a result, it is tough for one person to manage disparate tasks, in one work. Critics suggest Reagan was overburdened, which prevented him from doing a good job of oversight regarding the IranContra affair. Brzezinski suggested in Foreign Affairs that President Obama is similarly overburdened. Some suggest a need for permanent non-partisan advisers.
  • Dollars drive foreign policy. There are indications that decisions to go to war in Iraq were motivated by oil interests; for example, a British newspaper The Independent reported that the "Bush administration is heavily involved in writing Iraq's oil law" which would "allow Western oil companies contracts of up to 30 years to pump oil out of Iraq, and the profits would be tax-free." Whether motivated by oil or not, U.S. policy appears to much of the Arab world to have been motivated by oil. Some critics assert the U.S. decision to build the Panama Canal was motivated largely by business interests despite claims that it's motivated to "spread democracy" and "end oppression." Andrew Bacevich suggests policy is directed by "wealthy individuals and institutions." Some critics say U.S. foreign policy does reflect the will of the people, but blames the people for having a "consumerist mentality" which causes problems. In 1893, a decision to back a plot to overthrow the rulership of Hawaii by president Harrison was motivated by business interests in an effort to prevent a proposed tariff increase on sugar; Hawaii became a state afterwards. There was speculation that the Spanish-American War in 1898 between the U.S. and Spain was motivated by business interests in Cuba.
  • Presidents may lack experience. Since the constitution requires no prior experience in diplomacy, government, or military service, it is possible to elect presidents with scant foreign policy experience. Clearly the record of past presidents confirms this, and that presidents who have had extensive diplomatic, military, and foreign policy experience have been the exception, not the rule. In recent years, presidents had relatively more experience in such tasks as peanut farming, acting and governing governorships than in international affairs. It has been debated whether voters are sufficiently skillful to assess the foreign policy potential of presidential candidates, since foreign policy experience is only one of a long list of attributes in which voters tend to select candidates. The second Bush was criticized for inexperience in the Washington Post for being "not versed in international relations and not too much interested."
  • Presidency has too much authority. In contrast to criticisms that presidential attention is divided into competing tasks, some critics charge that presidents have too much power, and that there is the potential for tyranny or fascism. Some presidents circumvented the national security decision-making process. Critics such as Dana D. Nelson of Vanderbilt in her book Bad for Democracy and columnist David Sirotaand Texas law professor Sanford Levinsonsee a danger in too much executive authority.
  • Difficulty removing an incompetent president. Since the only way to remove an incompetent president is with the rather difficult policy of impeachment, it is possible for a marginally competent or incompetent president to stay in office for four to eight years and cause great mischief. In recent years, there has been great attention to this issue given the presidency of George W. Bush, but there have been questions raised about the competency of Jimmy Carter in his handling of the Iran hostage crisis. Ironically, a president who was arguably the most skillful in foreign policy, Richard M. Nixon, was impeached, but for offenses linked with domestic politics.
  • President may be incompetent. The presidency of George W. Bush has been attacked by numerous critics from both parties as being particularly incompetent, short-sighted, unthinking, and partisan. Bush's decision to launch the second Iraq War was criticized extensively; writer John Le Carre criticized it as a "hare-brained adventure." He was also criticized for advocating a policy of exporting democracy. Brzezinski described Bush's foreign policy as "a historical failure." Bush was criticized for being too secret regarding foreign policy and having a cabal subvert the proper foreign policy bureaucracy. Other presidents, too, were criticized. The foreign policy of George H. W. Bush was lackluster, and while he was a "superb crisis manager," he "missed the opportunity to leave a lasting imprint on U.S. foreign policy because he was not a strategic visionary," according to Brzezinski. He stopped the first Iraq War too soon without finishing the task of capturing Saddam Hussein. Foreign policy expert Henry Kissinger criticized Jimmy Carter for numerous foreign policy mistakes including a decision to admit the ailing Shah of Iran into the United States for medical treatment, as well as a bungled military mission to try to rescue the hostages in Teheran. Carter waffled from being "both too tough and too soft at the same time."
  • Congress excluded from foreign policy. Critic Robert McMahon thinks Congress has been excluded from foreign policy decision making, and that this is detrimental. Other writers suggest a need for greater Congressional participation.
  • Lack of control over foreign policy. During the early 1800s, general Andrew Jackson exceeded his authority on numerous times and attacked American Indian tribes as well as invaded the Spanish territory of Florida without official government permission. Jackson was not reprimanded or punished for exceeding his authority. Some accounts blame newspaper journalism called yellow journalism for whipping up virulent pro-war sentiment to help instigate the Spanish-American War. Some critics suggest foreign policy is manipulated by lobbies, such as the pro-Israel lobby, although there is disagreement about the influence of such lobbies. Nevertheless, Brzezinski wants stricter anti-lobbying laws.
  • Alienating allies. There is evidence that many U.S. allies have been alienated by a unilateral approach. Allies signaled dissatisfaction with U.S. policy in a vote at the U.N. Brzezinski counsels listening to allies and exercising self-restraint.
  • U.S. foreign policy manipulated by external forces. A Washington Post reporter wrote that "several less-than-democratic African leaders have skillfully played the anti-terrorism card to earn a relationship with the United States that has helped keep them in power" and suggested, in effect, that foreign dictators could manipulate U.S. policy for their own benefit. It is possible for foreign governments to channel money through PACs to buy influence in Congress.
  • Ineffective public relations. One report suggests that news source Al-jazeera routinely paints the U.S. as evil throughout the Mideast. Other critics have faulted the U.S. public relations effort.As a result of faulty policy and lackluster public relations, the U.S. has a severe image problem in the Mideast, according to Anthony Cordesman. Analyst Mathews said that it appears to much of the Arab world that we went to war in Iraq for oil, whether we did or not. In a 2007 poll by BBC News asking which countries are seen as having a "negative influence in the world," the survey found that Israel, Iran, United States and North Korea had the most negative influence, while nations such as Canada, Japan and the European Union had the most positive influence.
  • Ineffective prosecution of war. Amy Chua thinks the Iraq war has been managed inefficiently, with wasteful spending. One estimate is that the second Iraq War along with the so-called War on Terror cost $551 billion, or $597 billion in 2009 dollars. Boston University professor Andrew Bacevich has criticized American profligacy and squandering its wealth. There have been historical criticisms of U.S. warmaking capability; in the War of 1812, the U.S. was unable to conquer Canada despite several attempts and having superior resources; the U.S. Capitol was burned and the settlement ending the war did not bring any major concessions from the British.
  • Problem areas festering. Critics point to a list of countries or regions where continuing foreign policy problems continue to present problems. These areas include South America, including Ecuador, Venezuela, Bolivia, Uruguay, and Brazil. There are difficulties with Central American nations such as Honduras. Iraq has continuing troubles. Iran, as well, presents problems with nuclear proliferation. Pakistan is unstable, there is active conflict in Afghanistan. The Mideast in general continues to fester, although relations with India are improving. Policy towards Russia remains uncertain. China presents an economic challenge. There are difficulties in other regions too. In addition, there are problems not confined to particular regions, but regarding new technologies. Cyberspace is a constantly changing technological area with foreign policy repercussions. Climate change is an unresolved foreign policy issue, particularly depending on whether nations can agree to work together to limit possible future risks.
  • Ineffective strategy to fight terrorism. Critic Cordesman criticized U.S. strategy to combat terrorism as not having enough emphasis on getting Islamic republics to fight terrorism themselves. Sometimes visitors have been misidentified as "terrorists." Mathews suggests the risk of nuclear terrorism remains unprevented.
  • Historical instances of ineffective policies. Generally during the nineteenth century, and in early parts of the twentieth century, the U.S. pursued a policy of isolationism and generally avoided entanglements with European powers. After World War I, Time Magazine writer John L. Steele thought the U.S. tried to return to an isolationist stance, but that this was unproductive. He wrote: "The anti-internationalist movement reached a peak of influence in the years just before World War II." But Steele questioned whether this policy was effective; regardless, isolationism ended quickly after the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Analysts have wondered whether the U.S. pursued the correct strategy with Japan before World War II; by denying Japan access to precious raw materials, it is possible that U.S. policy triggered the surprise attack and, as a result, the U.S. had to fight a two-front war in both the Far East as well as Europe during World War II. While it may be the case that the Mideast is a difficult region with no easy solutions to avoiding conflict, since this volatile region is at the junction of three continents; still, many analysts think U.S. policy could have been improved substantially. The U.S. waffled; there was no vision; presidents kept changing policy. Public opinion in different regions of the world thinks that, to some extent, the 9/11 attacks were an outgrowth of substandard U.S. policy towards the region. The Vietnam War was a decade-long mistake.

• 29. Economic system. Changes in economic situation of Russia
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  A traditional economy is an economic system in which resources are allocated by inheritance, and which has a strong social network and is based on primitive methods and tools. It is strongly connected to subsistence farming. In the majority of countries traditional economy has been replaced by command economy, market economy or mixed economy. However, it is found today mainly in underdeveloped, agricultural parts of South America, Asia, and Africa. There are some advantages and disadvantages in a traditional economy. Advantages: a traditional economy fosters the sense of community, as it causes little friction among members and provides a sense of security and psychological comfort. Subsequently, there is a relatively low unemployment rate and low crime rate. A traditional economy allows for a greater degree of autonomy as no money or little is given to the government and there is no competition. Disadvantages: a traditional economy does not allow for much economic growth and development as changes are very slow and there is a lack of social mobility. A traditional economy does not take advantage of technology and there is relatively little promotion of intellectual and scientific development. With no incentives for entrepreneurs, the consumer choice is diminished, which leads to a lower standard of living.

• 30. Economics. Demand, supply, and elasticity
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  The false-cause fallacy often arises in economic analysis of two correlated actions or events. When one observes that two actions or events seem to be correlated, it is often tempting to conclude that one event has caused the other. But by doing so, one may be committing the false-cause fallacy, which is the simple fact that correlation does not imply causation. For example, suppose that new tape-recorder prices have steadily increased over some period of time and the new tape-recorder sales have also increased over this same period. One might then conclude that an increase in the price of new tape-recorders causes an increase in their sales. This false conclusion is an example of the false-cause fallacy; the positive correlation between the two events does not imply that there is any causation between them. In order to explain why both events are taking place simultaneously, one may have to look at other factors for example, rising consumer incomes, inflation, or rising producer costs.

• 31. Education and qualifications
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  During the interwork look directly at the interworker and answer all of his/her questions as specifically as you can. Ask any questions that you have about the job, such as hours, salary, or job benefits. Write down these questions before you go to the interwork. Before you leave, there should be a clear understanding about all aspects of the job.

• 32. Education in the Middle Ages
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• 33. Effective communication in different cultures
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  use good manners in everyday communication (e.g. not have food in your mouth when speaking)- use respectful language: use kind words and not swear, use certain form of an utterance (when asking for something say 'May I please have that' - not 'give me that.')- use a proper tone in your voice so as not to be condescending to the other person- look at the person (make eye contact)- say greeting words, say good-bye, sorry and thank you when it is necessary- introduce yourself/a new person- not interrupt when someone else is speaking- listen when someone else is speaking and hear what they are saying- apologize and ask for forgiveness when impoliteness happens, and try not to do it againexist some theories of politeness, one of those being Brown and Levinsons whose basic notion is face, or individuals self-esteem [1]. In other words, it implies peoples desire, on the one hand, for freedom to act (negative face), and, on the other hand, to be liked, approved of and included (positive face) [3]. Successful social interaction requires that speakers pay attention to both negative and positive face of their interlocutor; when either is potentially at risk, the speaker must take steps to minimise the threat by saying something in a way that offends as little as possible. So we can state that the greater the imposition and the greater the social distance between participants, the more face-work is required [3].speech act that is a potential threat to an interlocutors face is the request [3]. Politeness is connected with mitigating a direct form of asking for something and expressing an idea non-directly which means one applying a different grammatical form in the sentence, in this case the form of a question, most often a modal one. If you want somebody to bring you a definite book you would sooner say Can you bring me the book? rather than Bring the book. The two phrases are likely to leave quite a different impression on one and the same hearer, the former perceived naturally as a request to bring the book, the latter a command. Phrase #1 serves a good start for a probably successful minidialogue. Phrase #2 can make a native speaker doubt the interlocutors intentions and make him or her think of the speaker as a rude person., we can say that speaking politely means saying sentences of the kind Could you…?, Can you…? and so on. However, once we recall such an enormously important speech feature as intonation we could be struck how significantly it may change our work of politeness. Just pronounce the same sentence Can you bring the book for me? with different intonation imagining that you are irritated or annoyed by your interlocutor who wont bring you the book though he had promised to. If you try this difference when speaking to people, the effect is sure to be different. Intonation is surprisingly powerful in making a conversation either a failure or success. Will you please sit down can be pronounced with a lot of variations of voice tone, timbre, loudness, accentuation and tempo and at the same time the speaker will have a certain intention which is going to be reflected in these changes of the intonation of the whole phrase.is first to be perceived by ear, rather than the verbal component of an utterance. So any utterance or just sentence has intonation because even if it is not pronounced it is meant to either out loud or in the inner speech. Intonation is a complex phenomenon consisting of pitch, or speech melody, intensity, or loudness, tempo, or rate of speech, sentence stress, or accentuation, and rhythm (though different linguists distinguish different number and quality of the components). It is not only melodic characteristics that can make an utterance polite or impolite. For example, if in reply to my having given her what she had asked for, my friend will say Thank you rather quickly and quickly as well will leave me, I wouldnt consider such Thank you polite. There are general rules of speaking politely that must exist in various cultures. They include speaking not very loudly (using moderate intensity); speaking not very fast; speaking with a certain melody (e.g. using not very high tone); speaking with not very high emotion but in a more or less reserved way; not using gruff and rude gestures.each language has a set of special rules of polite speaking including rules of usage of vocabulary, grammatical forms and intonation patterns. The way politeness is expressed in the English language must be very interesting to know for non-native speakers. There exists a real problem with the word please which can be considered a politeness marker though does not necessarily make an utterance polite. English (as well as Russian) children are taught that it is the magic word to be used when asking for something. How does this magic word relate to politeness? According to Francis Lide, please is a word more optional than necessary for polite communication [2]. If we take a modal question with will inserting there please and say something like Will you please sit down the most likely situation for this sentence would be when the speaker is angry at someone who refuses to sit down and would be pronounced with emphasis on almost each word [2]. According to Anne Wichmann, please occurs mainly in requests, but not all types of request require please [3]. The Compact Oxford English Dictionary says please serves to add urgency and emotion to a request. On the other hand, the addition of please can be considered a further way of softening the force of requests, particularly if they are in the form of imperatives, in which case the force of command is reduced to that of a request [3]. Please typically occurs in standard situations for example in service encounters, where the right to ask for something and the obligation to give it is inherent in the event [3]. It also occurs when what is being requested is a minimal imposition on the hearer (such as passing the salt at table, e.g. Can you pass the sour cream please). In situations where the imposition is greater or the rights and obligations of the participants are not self-evident, please does not occur [3].

• 34. English speaking countries
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  Canadians, of whom there are more tnan 30 million, become accustomed to the disproportional size of the country by the time they have studied its geography at school. Newcomers to Canada if they know nothing else about it know that it is capacious. But most cannot help but be impressed with even the most basik statistics on our planet`s second biggest nation, which is exceeded in area only by Russia. Occupying over 9,976,000 square kilometres, Canada extends from the Northwest Territories` Cape Columbia on Ellesmere Island a relative hop and skip from the North Pole to Pelee Island in Ontario`s portion of Lake Erie and with the same latitude as central Spain. Canada`s neighbour across the Arctic Ocean is Russia. That is a north-south distance of 2,850 miles. The east to west span is 5,780 miles from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, to Mount St. Elias, the Yukon Territory six distinct time zones. Canada`s border with the United States is one of the longest: it extends 8,892 km and is broken by scores of entry-exit points between the two nations. It is near this frontier that some 85 per cent of the Canada`s populace is clustered.

• 35. Epoche der Rationalitаt, der Vernunft und des Empirismus - Aufklаrun (1720 bis 1785)
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  Die Epoche war weites gehend durch den Absolutismus geprägt. Die Zeit der uneingeschränkten Herrschaft der Fürsten und Könige. Im Volk waren Unwissenheit, Aberglaube, Vorurteile und Pessimismus weit verbreitet. Im 18Jh. begannen Teile des Bürgertums die Zustände zu kritisieren. Der absolute Staat stand über einer Gesellschaft, in der jeder in einen bestimmten Stand hineingeboren wurde, den er nicht verlassen konnte. An der Spitze stand der Adel, der Steuerfreiheit und Grundherrschaft besaß. Darunter kam das Bürgertum, Träger und Nutznießer der staatlich gelenkten Wirtschaft hatte aber weder politischen Einfluss wie der Adel, noch seine Privilegien. Die größte Last trugen die Bauern: Steuern für den Staat und Abgaben für den Grundherrn, auf dessen Land sie arbeiteten. Die mit Königen und Fürsten verbündete katholische und protestantische Kirche predigte der ländlichen Bevölkerung Ergebenheit in ihr Schicksal, welches einen tiefen Pessimismus verbreitete. Dieses Verhindern einer fortschrittlichen Entwicklung durch die Provinzialisierung wurde vom Adel und Bürgertum kritisiert. Die neuen Ideen waren: Freiheit statt Absolutismus, Gleichheit statt Stände, wissenschaftliche Erkenntnis statt Vorurteile und Aberglaube und Optimismus bezüglich des Jenseits. Die Menschen sollten über ihre politische, soziale und geistige Unterdrückung „aufgeklärt“ werden. Die Aufklärung startete bei Adligen, reichen und gebildeten Bürgern, ging dann in Lesegesellschaften über. Der literarische Markt wurde zum Regelfall und der Schriftsteller produzierte nur noch für den Verleger.

• 36. European Union
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• 37. Evaluating the GPRS Radio Interface for Different Quality of Service Profiles
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  The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) is a standard from the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) on packet data in GSM systems [6], [14]. By adding GPRS functionality to the existing GSM network, operators can givetheir subscribers resource-efficient wireless access to external Internet protocol-bases networks, such as the Internet and corporate intranets. The basic idea of GPRS is to provide a packet-switched bearer service in a GSM network. As impressively demonstrated by the Internet, packet-switched networks make more efficient use of the resources for bursty data applications and provide more flexibility in general. In previous work, several analytical models have been developed to study data services in a GSM network. Ajmone Marsan et al. studied multimedia services in a GSM network by providing more than one channel for data services [1]. Boucherie and Litjens developed an analytical model based on Markov chain analysis to study the performance of GPRS under a given GSM call characteristic [4]. For analytical tractability, they assumed exponentially distributed arrival times for packets and exponential packet transfer times, respectively. On the other hand, discrete-event simulation based studies of GPRS were conducted. Meyer et al. focused on the performance of TCP over GPRS under several carrier to interference conditions and coding schemes of data [10]. Furthermore, they provided a detailed implementation of the GPRS protocol stack [11]. Malomsoky et al. developed a simulation based GPRS network dimensioning tool [9]. Stuckmann et al. studied the correlation of GSM and GPRS users with the simulator GPRSim [13]. This paper describes a discrete-event simulator for GPRS on the IP level. The simulator is developed using the simulation package CSIM [12] and considers a cellcluster comprising of seven hexagonal cells. The presented performance studies were conducted for the innermost cell of the seven cell cluster. The simulator focuses on the communication over the radio interface, because this is one of the central aspects of GPRS. In fact, the air interface mainly determines the performance of GPRS. We studied the correlation of GSM and GPRS users by a static and dynamic channel allocation scheme. A first approach of modeling dynamic channel allocation was introduced by Bianchi et al. and is known as Dynamic Channel Stealing (DCS) [3].

• 38. Evolution of Christianity
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• 39. Examples of modern determinations of culture
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  Certainly, present means progress in area of psychology of development in explanation that, how individuals arrive at different cognitive and communicative capabilities. We have some key concepts about by a logically by a ration thought, about a language and other symbolic systems. But empiric, problem-oriented nature of greater part of researches on psychology of development, creates difficulty for those, who to aim to affect more all-purpose, but also thinner, difficult perceptible themes, styles of value, which are also included in understanding of culture. The method of achievement of competence (for example, in a political sphere) or role (for example, roles of friend) absents in psychology of development. In the total skepticism appears concerning that, whether there are these difficult perceptible themes in principles by suitable themes for the advanced study. From this point of work anthropologists experience difficulty in that, to assert reality of culture. Really, "super-organic" makes the head stone of this discipline. However in this case resistance to determination of culture is created, as life of individual can in general absent here. Id est there is a paradox in determination of acceptance of culture. A culture is the same necessary part of surroundings of child, as air, which he breathes and as fairy-tales which he listens. There are many researches about perception of culture, done as within the framework of psychology of development, so within the framework of cultural anthropology: many of the last are executed in psychoanalytical tradition and tradition of school "Culture and Personality". But it should be noted that these most works concentrated on a question, as an individual develops as personality, but not as individuals develop as fruitful and interactive members of the examined culture. Small attention spared to the processes by means of which individuals develop a cognitive competence are those capabilities and ways of thinking, which are required by mastering of different roles in technological and economic spheres of their society. Such blank unsurprising foremost because contiguity with cognition only recently affected psychology and yet later anthropological sciences. To work out the all-purpose theory of mastering of culture comparative researches are needed. But we need not only new information about the processes of development in the different corners of the world, but we does not possess even an acceptable category chart for comparison and analysis of these researches. To attain our purpose we must do a few preliminary remarks. A culture must not be examined as single, inviolable, not differentiable integrity. Opposite, for heuristic approach it is necessary to divide a culture on a separate area, each of which can be analyzed separately. Description of area includes judgments and flexibility. An area can be in relation to wide, as a cognitive area by comparison to a social area, or very specific, as an area of algebra or nuclear physics. Fundamentally here that everybody can legally investigate the private area of achievement into a culture, to describe select the eventual state is inherent to the adult member of culture, and then to begin to determine different steps and stages on the way of achievement of this eventual state. Such "regional approach" implies that initially a young organism into society has a competence in this area. Such supposition sets much work to the social researchers, and those, who supposes, that a competence is to a great extent the genetically determined process (as Chomsky considered), and those, who supposes that achievement of competence is completely the result of teaching (as behaviorists) process, and those, who prefers approach related to instinctive co-operation (as Piage), and to many psychologists of development… In addition to this statement about existence and autonomy of different areas of competence, we developing the theory of the cultural understanding, must look at her from four different points of work. First two can be examined as diametrically opposite to one other. From one side it is a culture as unit, including the different areas, beliefs and values. Other extreme point of work is an individual, equipped by his genetic legacy, including different neurological and psychological mechanisms. The third point of work is the system of symbols, being into a culture. Fourth - modus of transmission of the cultural understanding… I consider a necessity to consider three spheres, which necessarily must be compared in the different corners of the world. It is a 1) physical world, 2) the world, artifact created by a man, 3) the social world. In every culture a man must find funds, in an order to purchase capabilities, enabling to him effectively deal with these three spheres. Moreover, an individual must develop these capabilities both at intuitional and practical level and at the level of explicit cognition. An individual must attain and «know as well as «know that» in all these spheres. Certainly, between cultural distinctions in methods which these cultural knowledge are coded, passed and realized makes a main question for philosophers, anthropologists and other social researchers. Cultures considerably differentiate in regard to methods which they determine these three spheres (and making their areas), in the gamut of more or less explicit forms cognitions which embrace every sphere and, that can be it is most important, in values which they have in every culture.

• 40. Fashion business in Ukraine
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  2. Talented young designers. A lot of various displays and competitions are conducted in Ukraine. The most known are: the Ukrainian week pret-and-port «fashion Seasons», the International festival of a fashion «Kiev podium», International contest of one dress «the Crystal silhouette» and a lot of others. Constantly new names appear, and known designers in the country work with known clients (for example, Ajna Gase, Alexey Zalevsky, Anna Babenko, Sergey Byzov). Some Ukrainian fashion designers are more known in Europe than in the homeland - designers look for more adequate and solvent consumer. But many of them find methods to advance their collections in the homeland too. One of the vivid examples - some fashion lines and accessories, and also a chain store system of fashionable house Victoria GRES (the fashion designer Victoria Gres). Very good example is Lilija Pustovit. The talented designer, having connected the name with a trade mark of the investor, has created design brand NB Poustovit - for today one of the most successful Ukrainian fashion brands in the country, under the same scheme works Nota Bene and Karavay. The close partnership with one more supplier of a fabric has given the chance to develop successfully and to other brand - Golets by Dolcedonna (the designer - Elena Golets), and also its more mass "sister" - trade mark Dolcedonna.

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