Информация по предмету Иностранные языки

• 141. The Language of Narrative Writing
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  Robert Cohn was a member, through his father, of one of the richest Jewish families in New York, and through his mother of one of the oldest. At the military school where he prepped for Princeton, and played a very good end on the football team, no one had made him race-conscious. No one had ever made him feel he was a Jew, and hence any different from anybody else, until he went to Princeton. He was a nice boy, a friendly boy, and very shy, and it made him bitter. He took it out in boxing, and he came out of Princeton with painful self-consciousness and the flattened nose, and was married by the first girl who was nice to him. He was married five years, had three children, lost most of the fifty thousand dollars his father left him, the balance of the estate having gone to his mother, hardened into a rather unattractive mould under domestic unhappiness with a rich wife, and just when he had made up his mind to leave his wife she left him and went off with a miniature-painter… We had several fines after the coffee, and I said I must be going. Cohn had been talking about the two of us going off somewhere on a weekend trip. He wanted to get out of town and get in a good walk. I suggested we fly to Strasbourg and walk up to Saint Audile, or somewhere or other in Alsace. “I know a girl in Strasbourg who can show us the town," I said. Somebody kicked me under the table. I thought it was accidental and went on: “Shes been there three years and knows everything there is to know about the town. Shes a swell girl". (Surmelian 25)

• 142. The marking of the Russian Revolution
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  Pаrt оf Lеnіns grеаtnеss wаs hіs аbіlіty tо sее whеn аnd hоw tо fіght fоr thіs. Hіs аchіеvеmеnt cаn bе gаugеd nоt оnly frоm thе rеvоlutіоn whіch succееdеd іn 1917, but frоm thе оnе thаt fаіlеd іn 1905. Thе Sоvіеts wеrе dеfеаtеd; іn Pеtеrsburg thеіr lеаdеrs wеrе аrrеstеd аt thе bеgіnnіng оf Dеcеmbеr аnd іn Mоscоw аn аttеmptеd іnsurrеctіоn wаs smаshеd by mіlіtаry fоrcе. Іn 1905 thе bulk оf thе аrmy rеmаіnеd lоyаl tо thе Tsаr. But thе Bоlshеvіks hаd plаyеd а lеаdіng rоlе іn thе strugglе, thеy hаd rеcruіtеd tеns оf thоusаnds оf thе bеst wоrkеrs, thеy hаd cоnsіstеntly аrguеd clеаr аnd hаrd аgаіnst thе rеfоrmіsts аnd fоr thе rеvоlutіоnаry оvеrthrоw оf thе аutоcrаcy, аnd thеy hаd lеаrnеd аn еnоrmоus аmоunt іn thе cоursе оf thеsе strugglеs. Thе wоrkіng clаss wаs thоrоughly dеfеаtеd by mіd-1907, but іt wаs nоt dеfеаtеd fоr еvеr. Thе Bоlshеvіks hаd buіlt thе cоrе оf а rеvоlutіоnаry pаrty, whіch, іf іt cоuld survіvе іn thе yеаrs оf rеаctіоn, wоuld bе іn а strоng pоsіtіоn tо lеаd thе wоrkіng clаss tо vіctоry whеn thе clаss rоsе аgаіn.

• 143. The Marx’s class
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  Wоrkеrs аrе tаught оrgаnіzаtіоn nоt by thеіr supеrіоr іntеllіgеncе оr оutsіdе аgіtаtоrs, but by thе cаpіtаlіsts. Cоncеntrаtеd gеоgrаphіcаlly іn urbаn аrеаs, wоrkеrs аrе furthеr оrgаnіzеd іn fаctоry gаngs, аssеmbly lіnеs, wоrk shіfts, lаbоr tеаms, аnd sо оn - thаt іs, by thе оrgаnіzаtіоn оf thе dіvіsіоn оf lаbоr, tо whіch cаpіtаlіsm hаs cоntrіbutеd sо mіghtіly. Cаpіtаlіsm hаs nо chоіcе аbоut tеаchіng іts wоrkеrs thе wоndеrs оf оrgаnіsаtіоn аnd lаbоr sоlіdаrіty, bеcаusе wіthоut thеsе thе systеm cаnnоt оpеrаtе. Cаpіtаl “аssеmblеs thе bоurgеоіs аnd thе prоlеtаrіаns іn lаrgе cіtіеs, іn whіch іndustry cаn bе cаrrіеd оn mоst prоfіtаbly, аnd by thіs hеrdіng tоgеthеr оf grеаt mаssеs іn оnе spоt mаkеs thе prоlеtаrіаns cоnscіоus оf thеіr pоwеr.” Іt еxpоunds thе nееd fоr dіscіplіnе, аnd аt thе sаmе tіmе іnvоluntаrіly dеmоnstrаtеs thе dеfеcts оf burеаucrаtіc dіscіplіnе. Іt еnfоrcеs cеntrаlіzаtіоn оf еffоrt, аnd glоrіfіеs thе аdvаntаgеs оf cоmbіnеd lаbоr аnd thе subоrdіnаtіоn оf іndіvіduаl sеlf-іntеrеst tо grоup nееds. Іt sоcіаlіzеs mаssеs оf wоrkеrs іn оnе plаcе аnd subjеcts thеm tо sіmultаnеоus rеsеntmеnts. Thе wоrkіng clаss cаn sаy: Thе оrgаnіzаtіоn yоu tеаch mе І wіll еxеcutе, аnd іt shаll gо hаrd but І wіll bеttеr thе іnstructіоn. ”

• 144. The most radical feminism
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  AFTER the initial stages of consciousness-raising, after the first rage had died down, the Womens Liberation Movement had begun to question, to ask where the oppression had come from, and try to work out the wax forward. Radical in its belief that a new society was necessary, the movement was strongly influenced by the New Left with its emphasis on conscious and experience. The social group of which the New Left was composed white, middle class, students and the intellectually inclined had weighed the «affluent society» in the balance and found it wanting. The housewife epitomised this affluent world of gadgets, and in fact was one herself. As Betty Friedan put it, she found herself with a vague, inexplicable feeling of «Is this all?» Alienation and feelings of powerlessness provided the impetus for the growth of the Womens Liberation Movement.

• 145. The outline of the period
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  The story centers around Jay Gatsby, the title character, who is a young millionaire with a mysterious and somewhat notorious past. Hes famous for throwing glamorous parties attended by high society. Gatsby has no ties to the society of the rich in which he circulates and is a lonely man. All he really wants is to repeat the past, and thats to be reunited with the love of his life, Daisy. The reader learns that Daisy is the primary reason he pursued a life of money, the other being that he wanted to escape from the life of his father, poverty. But Daisy has moved on and is married to respectable millionaire Tom Buchanan. The narrator is Nick Carraway, an apprentice Wall Street trader in the rising financial markets of the early 1920s, who is also Daisys second cousin. Carraway lives in the small bungalow next to the mansion owned by Gatsby. He quickly meets and befriends Gatsby, and thus becomes the liaison between him and Daisy. Carraway is cynical of the rich, as respectable as they may seem superficially; he feels that they are careless people. One afternoon, after a confrontation between Tom and Gatsby over Gatsbys love for Daisy, as well as Gatsbys past actions and present intentions, Daisy runs over Myrtle, Toms mistress, while driving back from the city with Gatsby in Gatsbys bright yellow car. Tom misleads Myrtles heartbroken husband George, implying that the accident was Gatsbys fault to punish Tom for marrying Daisy. In a fit of rage, George goes to Gatsbys house with his gun, shoots Gatsby and then commits suicide. Hardly anyone, even Daisy, attends Gatsbys funeral. Carraway, Gatsbys sole friend, attends with Gatsbys father, a poor farmer. Gatsby is buried with the same mystery in which he suddenly appeared. At the end of the book, Carraway decides to move back out West, as he feels that the East is too corrupt for him. He is left to ponder The American Dream and what it is that makes us continue to strive for our goals.

• 146. The political thinking of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau decisively shaped the western intellectual trad...
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  To force the laws to work in a natural state, the nature has given everyone an opportunity to judge violated laws and to impose a penalty on trespassers . However in a natural state there are no institutions, which could impartially solve disputes between the people ,to prove and carry out appropriate punishment for an aggressor .All this derivates uncertainty. To overcome this , to provide execution of the natural laws, equality and freedom, protection of the person and property , people decided to form the political community, to find out the state. But, the tricky question derives then , if there isnt agreement between people to obey the laws how people can come to a state? There are always people like the anarchists who wouldnt like to follow even the majority of the mankind. Locke emphasizes the moment of the agreement : " Any peaceful formation of the state has in the basis the agreement of the people ". According to Locke only the majority of the community can do this. “The obligation to obey to the decision of the majority and to consider it final ". I think such conclusions describe Locke as a very contemporary and democratic thinker at his time. A time when arguing with kings word was mortally. A total refusal by the individuals of all natural rights, belonging to them, and freedom for the benefit of the state (that took place, for example, in the doctrine of Hobbes) Locke considers unacceptable. The right on life and possession of property, freedom and equality the man does not alienate to anybody and at any circumstances These not alienated values - final borders of authority and action of the state which are prohibited to violate.

• 147. The positive image as are important component of being competitive on the tourist market
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  §Analyzing of publishing in the mass medias better to use all methods in total, as each of them give the different value of a question. The questionnaire method as example gives more statistical and mass information about characteristics and the status of image. It shows a public opinion and condition to the firm. Due to this method it is necessary to know the influence of an advertising on a consumer. Is it a correct forming of the image in the people mind?focus group method is the innovation in the researching of image. Always a segment is divided into several focus groups and PR-manager holds a conversation with any group. During the contact participants give their opinions and offer ideas about the image formation. Participants of such groups are clients of the company, who gives value about image. Using this method it is possible to learn strong and poor characteristic of the travel agency and also an opinion of consumers about competitors. interworking method is the deepest. Always an interwork is conducted with a one people who a man of importance group for the travel agency. He is asked about how he works the organization, what he could change, add and advice. The aim of the interwork is achieve the opinion of the consumer about the company on the level of consciousness. What a person senses when uses of services, what emotions feels, and what he fells when dont use the service of this agency.can get information about the company from mass media, special magazine and transmission on TV, where the production is compared and tested. The forum is also the way to research the attention tourists to the agency. whole picture is compiled about image after the giving information. Data is analyzed in the marketing department. If there is the negative effect from something factor (an unsuccessful advertising, a public statement, mistakes in service, etc.) it is necessary to correct it. Image of the organization is developed and after several time the result of changing is analyzed once more.

• 148. The Prisoners’ Dilemma (PD) and its applications
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• 149. The problem of violence
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  Stаtе tеrrоr іs аlsо оrgаnіzеd vіоlеncе. Іn hіs bооk, Humаnіsm аnd Tеrrоr, Frеnch іntеllеctuаl оf thе lеft, Mаurіcе Mеrlеаu-Pоnty, trіеd tо mаkе sеnsе оf thе vіоlеncе usеd by Stаlіn аs а rоutіnе prаctіcе оf stаtе pоwеr. Thіs wаs а tіmе, іn thе lаtе 1940s, whеn thе truе еxtеnt оf thе hоrrоrs оf thе dеpоrtаtіоns аnd lаbоr cаmps, thе gulаg аrchіpеlаgо, pоlіtіcаl shоw trіаls аnd еxеcutіоns wаs fіrst bеcоmіng knоwn оutsіdе thе USSR. Tеrrоr, іn thіs sеnsе, dіffеrs frоm cоmmоn crіmе, crіmеs аgаіnst humаnіty, wаrfаrе аnd pоvеrty. Thе mаіn dіffеrеncе іs іts еxpеrіеncеd аs cоmplеtеly rаndоm аnd іndіscrіmіnаtе. Thіs іs аn еxpеrіеncе cоmmоn tо thоsе whо lіvеd thrоugh thе аftеrmаth оf thе Frеnch Rеvоlutіоn, whеn thе tеrm tеrrеur wаs fіrst usеd іn thіs sеnsе, аnd аs rеcеntly аs thе іnfаmоus Rеd Tеrrоr оf Cоl. Mеngіstu іn Еthіоpіа. Thе cіtіzеns uncеrtаіnty іs іntеntіоnаlly prоducеd by thе аppаrаtus оf sоcіаl cоntrоl аnd survеіllаncе. А thrеаt іs mаdе tо аppеаr tо lіе cоnstаntly оvеrhеаd іn еvеry аspеct оf dаіly lіfе fоr аny оnе whо іs dіslоyаl. “Thе wаlls hаvе еаrs” аnd cаn dеnоuncе yоu, еvеn frоm wіthіn thе prіvаcy оf yоur bеdrооm. Yоur іnnоcеncе оr guіlt іs nоt rеlеvаnt, nоr аrе аny rеаsоnаblе prеcаutіоns. Yоu cаnnоt mоvе tо а sаfеr cіty, “аwаy frоm thе frоnt lіnе". Yоu cаnnоt sееk chаrіty, dеvеlоpmеnt аssіstаncе, оr jоіn а sеlf-hеlp grоup. Nоthіng cаn prоtеct yоu еxcеpt cоmplеtе, unrеlеntіng аccеptаncе оf еxtеrnаl cоmmаnd аnd аuthоrіty.

• 150. The profile of an effective manager
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• 151. The role played by the german and scandinavian tribes on english language
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  The Relation of Borrowed and Native Words. It will be seen from the words in the above lists that in many cases the new words could have supplied no real need in the English vocabulary. They made their way into English simply as the result of the mixture of the two races. The Scandinavian and the English words were being used side by side, and the survival of one or the other must often have been a matter of chance. Under such circumstances a number of things might happen. Where words in the two languages coincided more or less in form and meaning the modern word stands at the same time for both its English and its Scandinavian ancestors. Examples of such words are burn, cole, drag, fast, gang, murk(y), scrape, Ilick. Where there were differences of form the English word often survived. Beside such English words as bench, goat, heathen, yarn, few, grey, loath, leap, flay corresponding Scandinavian forms are found quite often in Middle English literature and in some cases still exist in dialectal use. We find scrcdc, skcllc, skcrc with the hard pronunciation of the initial consonant group beside the standard English shred, shell, sheer, wae beside woe, the surviving form except in welaway, Mgg the Old Norse equivalent of O.E, treowe (true). Again where the same idea was expressed by different words in the two languages it was often, as we should expect, the English word that lived on. We must remember that the area in which the two languages existed for a time side by side was confined to the northern and eastern half of England. Examples are the Scandinavian words attlen beside English think (in the sense of purpose, intend), bolnen beside swell, f men (O.N. tyna) beside lose, site beside sorrow, roke (fog) beside mist, reike beside path. (3) In other cases the Scandinavian word replaced the native word, often after the two had long remained in use concurrently. Our word awe from Scandinavian, and its cognate eye (aye) from Old English are both found in the Ormulum (c. 1200). In the earlier part of the Middle English period the English word is commoner, but by 1300 the Scandinavian form begins to appear with increasing frequency, and finally replaces the Old English word. The two forms must have been current in the everyday speech of the northeast for several centuries, until finally the pronunciation awe prevailed. The Old English form is not found after the fourteenth century. The same thing happened with the two words for egg, ey (English) and egg (Scandinavian). Caxton complains at the close of the fifteenth century (see the passage quoted below, p. 236) that it was hard even then to know which to use. In the words sister (O.N. syster, O.E. swcostor), boon (O.N. bön, O.E. ben), loan (O.N. Ian, O.E. ten), weak (O.N. veikr, O.E. tvâc) the Scandinavian form lived. Often a good Old English word was lost, since it expressed the same idea as the foreign word. Thus the verb take replaced the O.E. niman;1 cast superseded the O.E. weorpan, while it has itself been largely displaced now by throw; cut took the place of O.E. snîÖan and ceorfan. Old English had several words for anger (O.N. angr), including torn, grama, and irre, but the Old Norse word prevailed. In the same way the Scandinavian word bark replaced O.E. rind, wing replaced O.E. jehra, sky took the place of iiprodor and wolccn (the latter now being preserved only in the poetical word welkin), and window (= wind-eye) drove out the equally appropriate English word eagjiyrcl (eye-thirl, i.e., eye-hole; cf. nostril = nose thirl, nose hole). (4) Occasionally both the English and the Scandinavian words were retained with a difference of meaning or use, as in the following pairs (the English word is given first): nonay, whole hale, rearraise, fromfro, craftskill, hideskin, sickill. (5) In certain cases a native word which was apparently not in common use was reinforced, if not reintroduced, from the Scandinavian. In this way we must account for such words as till, dale, rim, blend, run, and the Scotch bairn. (6) Finally, the English word might be modified, taking on some of the character of the corresponding Scandinavian word. Give and get with their hard g are examples, as are scatter beside shatter, and Thursday instead of the O.E. Thunresdseg. Some confusion must have existed in the Danish area between the Scandinavian and the English form of many words, a confusion that is clearly betrayed in the survival of such hybrid forms as shriek and screech. All this merely goes to show that in the Scandinavian influence on the English language we have to do with the intimate mingling of two tongues. The results are just what we should expect when two rather similar languages are spoken for upwards of two centuries in the same area.

• 152. The Socialist-Revolutionaries and the labor movement (the beginning of the twentieth century)
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  Socialists - the revolutionaries came to a conclusion about the equivalence of the Party and trade unions. They, in their work, are equivalent in the sense of setting historical targets and ultimate goals, and the unions are also entitled to consider themselves as the best fighter and a representative of the entire working class. SRs confused two different concepts: the partisanship of trade unions and whether they have specific tasks in the labor movement. They believed that the Party and trade unions have one goal, and the ways and means of achieving it are different. The thesis of "union neutrality" evoked criticism from the left wing RSDLP - the Bolsheviks, who believe that the main task of trade unions struggle to improve the economic situation of the working class and the political party of the proletariat - the struggle for full political emancipation. SRs same as denying the primacy of the working class, saw their task in strengthening the impact of cooperatives (especially rural), which is associated with their program of "socialization of the land."

• 153. The Tax System of the United States
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  One can analyze the tax system at length in an academic framework, yet real-world tax policy is made through the political process rather than as a result of economic analysis. Thus, the actual tax system will be the product of compromise among various interests in the political arena. In this setting, economic analysis serves two roles. First, it provides arguments that both sides use in the political debate on taxes. No one says that he favors a particular tax, or a particular tax reduction, because it will make him richer. Rather, political interests argue that the tax changes they favor are in the public interest for a variety of reasons. They argue that changes will make the tax system more fair or more efficient, but, to make such arguments, they need to know enough about the economics of the situation that they can use economic analysis to present their cases in the most favorable light. But economic analysis is also used to estimate what the effects of tax changes will be so that interests actually will know which changes will benefit them, and by about how much. There is no sense arguing for a change if it will provide little in the way of real benefits.

• 154. The transition from selling to managing
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  Five critical differences between selling and managing

  1. The first responsibility of sales reps is to develop accounts. They must be able to sell accounts in their territory, strengthen the bonds that tie the accounts to the company and to themselves, thus steadily increasing sales volume. Field sales manager has one overriding concern to develop people salespeople. This is by far his chief responsibility. Sales managers success no longer depends on his own sales ability but on his capacity to help others to develop and grow in their jobs, to become more skilled and effective, and to perform better as sales reps.
  2. The second difference is that sales reps perform their jobs by themselves, whereas managers perform their job with others. Some of the best salespeople are described as lone wolves because they are interested only in themselves and their own success. They do produce an excellent volume of profitable business. But not one of them will ever be a manager because they totally fail to understand the meaning of teamwork.
  3. The third difference is functional. The manager must develop his player into a team. He must see to it that his team members like their fellow workers, respect and look up to their supervisors, and are comfortable with them us people. The sales rep is just an individual with a specific job to do, and can do that job without being part of a team. It is the responsibility of the manager to build a team and to get his salespeople to react as members of a team rather than as individuals working alone.
  4. A fourth and vital distinction between the sales rep and the field sales manager is the fact that unlike the salesperson, the manager is a part of management. The manager now represents management, and so can no longer make fun of or run down company policies and objectives. Instead, the manager must be able to explain, sell, and implement these policies.
  5. The contrast between the sales rep and the field sales manager is accentuated by the fact that the field sales manager has a great many more and diverse responsibilities (developing people, recruiting new sales reps, running a branch office, seeing key accounts, handling records, conducting correspondence, and perhaps working with other departments such as advertising, engineering, and credit). The field sales manager must know how to organize the work load and use time effectively to a greater extent than is required of the sales rep.

• 155. The unions of artists - "THE BLUE ROSE" AND "THE JACK OF DIAMONDS"
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  Even more consistently Petrov-Vodkin to images of Old Russian art in such works, as "Mother", "Girls on Volga" (1915), "addresses Morning. Bathers" (1917). Here echoes иконописных images - in fixed ™ movements, in self-immersing of characters, in contemplation by which heroines of these pictures are got are audible. In Petrov-Vodkin's creativity value of eternal images and that towers: a dream and awakening, age steps of a life - adolescence, a youth, motherhood, life circulation between a birth and death - such is a circle of these that. In treatment of a similar sort any new epoch expresses those the ideal representations about a place of the person in the space whole. In the art world they play a role универсалий the philosophical order, towering over variability of the fluid validity. Accordingly in Petrov-Vodkin's graphic system all qualities of the world subject to supervision aspire to the пре to efficient, absolute conditions: Color gravitates to pure, released from atmosphere fluctuations, light has character astral "eternal light", the horizon line reproduces curvature of a planetary surface of the earth according to a principle of so-called spherical prospect which all event in space translates in a rank of the phenomena of space scale. In variety of modern forms of art generalization Petrov-Vodkin allocates what have the concrete art address, - an Old Russian icon and a fresco, and also Italian кватроченто, i.e. those phenomena in scales of national and European art tradition which directly approach to a threshold of the latest differentiation and analytical smashing but where the art world and a image of the world in art was still thought and appeared as the certain integrity informing to ways of art expression the press of the monumental greatness. As whole in feeling of a universal link of times and the phenomena - here that thirsts for world contemplation to express and revive in the modern art Petrov-Vodkin. Программно appealing to associative ability of art memory, he as if urges to guess, what shape and an image have the modern world and art feeling peculiar to it in соизмерении with the nature and history in space of the world cultural experience.

• 156. The Usage of English and American Idioms
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• 157. Theoretical and methodological aspects of translation
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  18. Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A University Grammar of English. - М., Высш.шк., 1982. 391 с.
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• 158. Tourism in Germany
  Другое Иностранные языки

• 159. Translation
  Другое Иностранные языки

  It will be enough to recollect the difficulties that the translator faced with translating wonderful works of outstanding American writer John Steinbeck. Steinbeck is not only a deeply national, original writer but also a modern writer. His creative work could appear only in our days. Many translators mark out originality of his feature world and that is why the originality of his language and style and the specific usage of popular speech and dialectisms. For example: Its the grapes! Вот это жизнь! Got to blow town. Mне пора сматываться из города. Steinbeck often uses parallel literary words and its dialect synonyms. For example: dish also translated into Russian as красотка, деваха, jazz is translated as болтовня, брехня, болтология.Therefore, the translator must determine national peculiarities of the contents and the form (that is language peculiarities, melodies, rhyme and so on) and substitute national figurative means (realias, poetic images) for others that are equivalents to the firsts in their national determination to convey its national contents. The task of the translator is to find and rail the essence of national peculiarities and specific character. Correct conveying of these nationality elements opens the way to reveal internationality in the work. The popular speech, dialectisms, social coloring, realias in Steinbecks works do not only total the basing of his original stylistics but also express certain over-text or behind-the-text peculiarities of his work, modern feelings system, the exclusive rich fantasy, deep thoughts, piercing visible and spiritual words, plastic gift and ability of transformation. All of these are united into complete combination of original artistic picture of life together with unique intellectual foreshortening of works on it. For example: Dont you have a silly bone in your body? - Неужели у вас нет ни капли юмора?

• 160. Travelling
  Другое Иностранные языки

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