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281. British Isles
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The beginning of the Iron Age (ab. 400 BC) British Isles were invaded by Celts armed with weapons of iron. They conquered Kent and much of Southern England. They imposed their language on the natives, its Gaelic form was used in Ireland and Scotland, the Brythonic form - in England and Wales. It was the Brythonic tribe that gave its name to the whole country. The first chronicle of Britain was written by an educated merchant from Morsel. He also wrote the first description of the people, called Celts. He said they were a gentlefolk, skilled craftsman, who welcomed visitors. The most educated visitor of Britain described the British as a fierce race. His name was Julius Caesar. Present English dates back to 5th-6th centuries, when Germanic tribes of Jutes, Saxons & Angles overran all England except Cornwall & Cumberland. Some religious terms were borrowed from Latin in connection with converting England to Christianity by St. Augustin. Some parts of England were invaded by Danes & Norwegians, that's why the languages of the Anglo-Saxons & Danes formed the basis of English.
282. British painting in the 17-18th centuries (Британская живопись 17-18 вв.)
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The love of fourteenth-century painters for graceful and delicate details is seen in such famous illustrated manuscripts as the English Psalter known as Queen Mary's Psalter(about 1310). One of the pages shows Christ in the temple, conversing with the learned scribes. They have put him on a high chair, and he is seen explaining some point of doctrine with the characteristic gesture used by medieval artists when they wanted to draw a teacher. The scribes raise their hands in attitude of awe and astonishment, and so do Christ's parents, who are just coming on to the scene, looking at each other wonderingly. The method of telling the story is still rather unreal. The artist has evidently not yet heard of Giotto's discovery of the way in which to stage a scene so as to give it life. Christ is minute in comparison with the grown-ups, and there is no attempt on the part of the artist to give us any idea of the space between the fugures. Moreover we can see that all the faces are more of less drawn according to one simple formula, with the curved eyebrows, the mouth drawn downwards and the curly hair and beard. It is all the more surprising to look down the same page and to see that another scene has been added, which has nothing to do with the sacred text. It is a theme from the daily life of the time, the hunting of ducks with a hawk. Much to the delight of the man and woman on horseback, and of the boy in front of them, the hawk has just got hold of a duck, while tow others are flying away. The artist may not have looked at real boys when he painted the scene above, but he had undoubtedly looked at real hawks and ducks when he painted the scene below. Perhaps he had too much reverence for the biblical narrative to bring his observationn of actual life into it. He preferred to keep the two things apart: the clear symbolic way of telling a story with easily readable gestures and no distracting details, and on the margin of the page, the piece from real life, which reminds us once more that this is Chaucer's century. It was only in the cours of the fourteenth century that the two elements of this art, the graceful narrative and the faithful observation, were gradually fused. Perhaps this would not have happened so soon without the influence of Italian art.
283. British press
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The tabloid press is much more popular than the quality press. In some countries, newspapers are owned by government or by political parties. This not the case in Britain Newspapers here are mostly owned by individuals or by publishing companies, and the editors of the papers are usually allowed considerate freedom of expression. This is not to say that newspapers are without political bias. Papers like The Daily Telegraph, The Daily Express and The Sun, for example, usually reflect conservative opinions in their comment and reporting, while the Daily mirror and the Guardian have a more leftwing bias.
284. British school
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A fair idea of the British artists achievements in the field of portrait painting can be gained from the canvases by George Romney Thomas Gainsborough, John Opie, Henry Rdeburn, John Hoppner and John Russell, all marked by a vividness of expression and brilliance of execution typical of the British School of portrait painting in the days when it had achieved a national tradition. Highly important is Gainsboroughs superb «Portrait of the Duchess of Beaufort» painted in a loose and most effective manner characteristic of his art in the late 1770s. For charm of expression and brilliance of execution, it ranks among the masterpieces of the Museum.The «Tron Forge» by Joseph Wright of Derby is an interesting example of a new subject in English18th century art: the theme of labour and industry, which merged in the days of the Industrial Revolution.
285. British theatres
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Until recently the history of the English theatre has been build around actors rather then companies. It has been hard to find any London theatre that even had a consistent policy. There are no permanent staff in British theatres. Apply is rehearsed for a few weeks by a company of actors working together mostly for the first time and it is allowed to run as long as it draws the odious and pays it's way.
286. British vs. American English
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British English American EnglishcentrecentertheatreTheaterrealiseRealizecatalogueCatalogprogrammeProgramtravelledTraveledneighbourneighborgreygrayploughplowto practise (verb)to practice (verb)practice (noun)practice (verb)chequecheck (noun)Again, these are in my opinion examples for the most important spelling differences between British and American English. Of course, there are more of them and the purpose of this article is not to elaborate on orthography but to raise your awareness of the subject so you can make your own observations and draw conclusions.
287. Brown, Ford Madox
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His best-known picture, The Last of England (City Art Gallery, Birmingham, 1855) was inspired by the departure of Woolner, the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor, for Australia. The other famous anthology piece that Brown painted, Work (Manchester City Art Gallery, 1852-63), shows his dedicated craftsmanship and brilliant coloring, but is somewhat swamped by its social idealism. In 1861 Brown was a founder member of William Morris's company, for which he designed stained glass and furniture. The major work of the later part of his career is a cycle of paintings (1878-93) in Manchester Town Hall on the history of the city. Brown was an individualist and a man of prickly temperament; he opposed the Royal Academy and was a pioneer of the one-man show.
288. Bruegel, Pieter the Elder
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Pieter Bruegel the Elder, generally considered the greatest Flemish painter of the 16th century, is by far the most important member of the family. He was probably born in Breda in the Duchy of Brabant, now in The Netherlands. Accepted as a master in the Antwerp painters' guild in 1551, he was apprenticed to Coecke van Aelst, a leading Antwerp artist, sculptor, architect, and designer of tapestry and stained glass. Bruegel traveled to Italy in 1551 or 1552, completing a number of paintings, mostly landscapes, there. Returning home in 1553, he settled in Antwerp but ten years later moved permanently to Brussels. He married van Aelst's daughter, Mayken, in 1563. His association with the van Aelst family drew Bruegel to the artistic traditions of the Mechelen (now Malines) region in which allegorical and peasant themes run strongly. His paintings, including his landscapes and scenes of peasant life, stress the absurd and vulgar, yet are full of zest and fine detail. They also expose human weaknesses and follies. He was sometimes called the "peasant Bruegel" from such works as Peasant Wedding Feast (1567).
289. Buckingham Palace
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The rooms open to visitors are used principally for official entertainment .These include Receptions and State Banquets, and it is on such occasions, when the rooms are filled with flowers and thronged with formally dressed guests and liveried servants, that the Palace is seen at its most splendid and imposing. But of course the Palace is also far more than just the London home of the Royal Family and a place of lavish entertainment. It has become the administrative centre of the monarchy where, among a multitude of engagements, Her Majesty receives foreign Heads of State, Commonwealth leaders and representatives of the Diplomatic Corps and conducts Investitures, and where the majority of the Royal Houshold, consisting of six main Departments and a staff of about three hundred people, have their offices.
290. Bundesgesetze
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Im einzelnen sieht das Grundgesetz folgende Regelung vor: Binnen zwei Wochen nach Eingang des Gesetzbeschlusses kann der Bundesrat verlangen, daЯ ein aus Mitgliedem des Bundestages und des Bundesrates fьr die gemeinsame Beratung von Vorlagengebildeter AusschuЯ einberufen wird (sog. VermittlungsausschuЯ). Ist zu einem Gesetz die Zustimmung des Bundesrates erforderlich, so kцnnen auch der Bundesrat und die Bundesregierung die Einberufung verlangen. Schlдgt der AusschuЯ eine Дnderung des Gesetzbeschlusses vor, so hat der Bundestag emeut BeschluЯ zu fassen. Ist dieses Verfahren beendet, so kann der Bundersrat, soweit zu einem Gesetz seine Zustimmung nicht erforderlich ist, binnen einer anderen Woche Einspruch gegen das vom Bundestag beschlossene Gesetz einlegen. Ьber den Einspruch stimmt der Bundestag ab. Wird der Einspruch mit der Mehrheit der Stimmen des Bundesrates beschlossen, so kann er durch den BeschluЯ der Mehrheit der Mitglieder des Bundestages zurьckgewiesen werden. Hat der Bundesrat den Einspruch mit einer Mehrheit von mindestens zwei Dritteln seiner Stimmen beschlossen, so bedarfdie Zurьckweisung durch den Bundestag ebenfalls einer Mehrheit von zwei Drittein, mindestens der Mehrheit der gesetzlichen Mitgliederzahl des Bundestages (Art. 77 GG).
291. Bundesprasident: Funktionen bei der Gesetzgebung und bei der Verwaltung
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Funktionen bei der Gesetzgebung: Ausfertigung der Gesetze, d. h. Unterzeichnung der Originalurkunde des Gesetzes nach Gegenzeichnung des zustдndigen Ministers, Verkьndung der Gesetze im Bundesgesetzblatt, d.h. amtliche Bekanntmachung in dem dafьr bestimmten Organ, in der Praxis aber Aufgabe der Bundesregierung,Die vorzeitige Einberufung des Bundestages, Die Auflцsung des Bundestages, wenn der Bundeskanzler bei seiner Wahl nicht die absolute Mehrheit erhielt und wenn der Vertrauensantrag des Bundeskanzlers nicht die Zustimmung der absoluten Mehrheit des Bundestages fmdet.
292. Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley
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Burne-Jones, Sir Edward Coley, professional name of EDWARD COLEY JONES (1833-1898), English painter, designer, and illustrator, born in Birmingham and educated at the University of Oxford. Trained by the Pre-Raphaelite painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Burne-Jones shared the Pre-Raphaelites' concern with restoring to art what they considered the purity of form, stylization, and high moral tone of medieval painting and design. His paintings, inspired by medieval, classical, and biblical themes, are noted for their sentimentality and dreamlike romanticized style; they are generally considered among the finest works of the Pre-Raphaelite school. They include King Cophetua and the Beggar Maid (1884, Tate Gallery, London).
293. Business communication
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This year we were given a lucky opportunity to have some sort of training. The Communication, to my mind, is one of the subjects we apply to our life not once, and studying interpersonal skills maybe the most interesting occupation I can imagine. I think, nobody can remain indifferent to the relations between people, their behaviour and their individuality. It is no matter who are you - the manager of giant corporation or, lets say, a low-paid employee in a small office - if you are involved into some kind of business activity and have some goals and wishes - you are compelled to have a deal with others, without possibility to stand out from the communication.
294. Business English, учебник F.W. King, Units 3-6, для специальности Мировая экономика
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Many thx for your order for pattern no.300 of April 7. We appreciate your interest in our goods but we regret to say that we no longer export this brand. This article is out of fashion now & haven't god any orders for it almost an year. That's why we ceased to produce it but we are pleased to inform u that our research department has developed a new pattern-300a that meets demand in your country. We are sending u its sample by Parcel Post. U can give it a trial & then plz advise us if u agree to place order for such a product. We are sure u will & look forward to h.f. you soon.
295. Business letters throught lexics
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"The figures must be approved" are obscure ones leaving unsettled who it is that delivers, who decides, and who does the approving. Which side it is to be? Lawsuits are the plausible outcome of leaving it all unsettled. Passives used in contracts can destroy the whole negotiations. "You will deliver" is better for it identifies the one who will do delivering. Certainly, "must be approved by us" violates other canons. "We shall have the right but not the obligation to approve" is less unfortunate. There is no doubt that passives do not suit business letters, and if they go all the way through without adding something like "by you" or "by us" they are intolerable. Once in a long while one may find passives used purposely to leave something unresolved. In those circumstances they will be in class with "negotiate in good faith", which I've examined earlier.
296. Business trip
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Employees of different countries usually go on business trips. Any firm chooses only best export for it. Companies can arrange such trips both in and outside the country. There are many reasons of going on business there are to make a contract, to discuss different terms of delivery, payment or shipment, to have tests, to do consultancy, to improve once professional skills, to work etc. Represent natives of the companies make preliminary arrangements in order to meet. Usually itinerary of the trip is carefully planned by the head of the department or an executive. A business trip can be a long term or a short term one. Often an employee must give a financial report to the chief. As a rule businessman has a chance to go sightseeing or to visit theatres, or just have some rest after the working day. They also try to buy gifts or presents to relatives, friends and colleagues business trips contribute to extension of business relationship of a company and help to succeed in the world market.
297. Business Trips
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Nowadays people who go on business mostly travel by air as it is the fastest means of travelling. Passengers are requested to arrive at the airport 2 hours before departure time on international flights and an hour on domestic flights as there must be enough time to complete the necessary airport formalities. Passengers must register their tickets, weigh in and register the luggage.
298. Cézanne, Paul
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Cйzanne was born at Aix-en-Provence in the south of France on Jan. 19, 1839. He went to school in Aix, forming a close friendship with the novelist Emile Zola. He also studied law there from 1859 to 1861, but at the same time he continued attending drawing classes. Against the implacable resistance of his father, he made up his mind that he wanted to paint and in 1861 joined Zola in Paris. His father's reluctant consent at that time brought him financial support and, later, a large inheritance on which he could live without difficulty. In Paris he met Camille Pissarro and came to know others of the impressionist group, with whom he would exhibit in 1874 and 1877. Cйzanne, however, remained an outsider to their circle; from 1864 to 1869 he submitted his work to the official SALON and saw it consistently rejected. His paintings of 1865-70 form what is usually called his early ``romantic'' period. Extremely personal in character, it deals with bizarre subjects of violence and fantasy in harsh, somber colors and extremely heavy paintwork.
299. Cézanne, Paul: Cézanne early work
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One of the most important works of his early years is the portrait of his formidable father. The Artist's Father (1866, 199 x 119 cm (78 x 47 in)) is one of Cйzanne's ``palette-knife pictures'', painted in short sessions between 1865 and 1866. Their realistic content and solid style reveal Cйzanne's admiration for Gustave Courbet. Here we see a craggy, unyielding man of business, a solid mass of manhood, bodily succint from the top of his black beret to the tips of his heavy shoes. The uncompromising verticals of the massive chair are echoed by the door, and the edges of the small still life by Cйzanne on the wall just behind: everything corresponds to the absolute verticals of the edges of the canvas itself, further accentuating the air of certainty about the portrait. Thick hands hold a newspaper--though Cйzanne has replaced his father's conservative newspaper with the liberal L'Evйnement, which published articles by his childhood friend, Emile Zola. His father devours the paper, sitting tensely upright in the elongated armchair. Yet it is a curiously tender portrait too. Cйzanne seems to see his father as somehow unfulfilled: for all his size he does not fully occupy the chair, and neither does he see the still life on the wall behind him, which we recognize as being one of his son's. We do not see his eyes-- only the ironical mouth and his great frame, partly hidden behind the paper.
300. Cézanne, Paul: From Impressionism to Classicism and Cubism
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Cйzanne was a brooding, complex man, given to rages, grudges and depressions. He had few friends, and those he had he alienated. Even when success finally caught up with him, he was dogged by feelings of inadequacy. The most famous of his friends was his schoolmate and writer Emile Zola, who was everything Cйzanne wasn't -- charming, eloquent, sociable and successful at an early age. Zola was art critic, novelist and Cйzanne's mentor. The artist looked at him for strength but gave nothing in return. Zola got tired of placating Cйzanne's ego, and in later years, when Zola wrote The Masterpiece of an unfulfilled artist who eventually killed himself, Cйzanne was convinced that the author had him in mind. He was so egocentric and so paranoid, he assumed everyone would know Zola was writing about him. The reality was that no one knew about him at all, but the novel still destroyed their friendship.

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