Иностранные языки

• 381. The outline of the period
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 27.08.2008

  The story centers around Jay Gatsby, the title character, who is a young millionaire with a mysterious and somewhat notorious past. Hes famous for throwing glamorous parties attended by high society. Gatsby has no ties to the society of the rich in which he circulates and is a lonely man. All he really wants is to repeat the past, and thats to be reunited with the love of his life, Daisy. The reader learns that Daisy is the primary reason he pursued a life of money, the other being that he wanted to escape from the life of his father, poverty. But Daisy has moved on and is married to respectable millionaire Tom Buchanan. The narrator is Nick Carraway, an apprentice Wall Street trader in the rising financial markets of the early 1920s, who is also Daisys second cousin. Carraway lives in the small bungalow next to the mansion owned by Gatsby. He quickly meets and befriends Gatsby, and thus becomes the liaison between him and Daisy. Carraway is cynical of the rich, as respectable as they may seem superficially; he feels that they are careless people. One afternoon, after a confrontation between Tom and Gatsby over Gatsbys love for Daisy, as well as Gatsbys past actions and present intentions, Daisy runs over Myrtle, Toms mistress, while driving back from the city with Gatsby in Gatsbys bright yellow car. Tom misleads Myrtles heartbroken husband George, implying that the accident was Gatsbys fault to punish Tom for marrying Daisy. In a fit of rage, George goes to Gatsbys house with his gun, shoots Gatsby and then commits suicide. Hardly anyone, even Daisy, attends Gatsbys funeral. Carraway, Gatsbys sole friend, attends with Gatsbys father, a poor farmer. Gatsby is buried with the same mystery in which he suddenly appeared. At the end of the book, Carraway decides to move back out West, as he feels that the East is too corrupt for him. He is left to ponder The American Dream and what it is that makes us continue to strive for our goals.

• 382. The peculiarities in texts of business documents
  Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 05.07.2011

  One of the most striking features of Business English is a wide use of verbals. There is common knowledge that verbals are widely used in social English, but they are often used in business and commercial correspondence as well. The usage of verbals, however, is very specific and presents certain difficulties.of the most frequently used verbals in business letters is the infinitive. It may use as an adjunct to verbs, nouns and adjectives. Accordingly, infinitive constructions are subdivided into infinitives as verb adjuncts, infinitives as noun adjuncts and infinitives as adjective adjuncts. The most interesting and important for the research is the first group, so we have focused on it.are six types of patterns in which the infinitive is to be regarded as a verb adjunct:

  • an adjunct to an active verb;
  • an adjunct to a passive verb;
  • a complex adjunct to an active verb;
  • a prepositional complex adjunct to an active verb;
  • a wh - infinitive adjunct;
  • an adjunct to a verb in a sentence with a function of the subject.
  • The groups of the infinitive as an adjunct to an active verb, the infinitive as an adjunct to a passive verb and the infinitive as a complex adjunct to an active verb are used in commercial correspondence and in contracts in particular situations. The last three types of the infinitive are rarely used in business correspondence or might be used just occasionally.
  • The infinitive as an adjunct to an active verb always follows a head-verb. In business correspondence it is lexically dependent and commonly found after the following verbs: to agree, to appear, to arrange, to continue, to decide, to expect, to fail, to hesitate, to hope, to intend, to like, to manage, to need, to offer, to omit, to plan, to prefer, to prepare, to propose, to regret, to secure, to try, to want, to wish.
  • e.g. They have arranged to produce the equipment.
  • We won't fail to provide full particulars as soon as possible.
  • In the case the suppliers want to have any additional information you should contact us immediately.
  • Generally in contracts and agreements the infinitive adjunct to an active verb is a simple infinitive. Sometimes, however, it may be followed by the perfect infinitive, indicating an action which precedes that one of the predicate verb. As for the continuous infinitive in this function the analysis of contracts has proved that it is hardly ever used.
  • It should also be noted that in commercial correspondence the subject of the infinitive adjunct is a person (e.g. we, they) or a thing denoted by the subject of the sentence (e.g. our firm).
  • e.g. We look forward to your early reply.
  • The Suppliers inform the Buyers that there had been a fire.
  • The infinitive in business correspondence may also serve as an adjunct to a passive verb. In this case it always follows its head-verb and is lexically restricted. The infinitive in this function follows the following verbs: to consider, to expect, to instruct, to prepare, to repute, to require.
  • e.g. The goods are considered to be in conformity with the certificate.
  • The delivery date is understood to be the date on which the Suppliers apply to the Buyers' Shipping Agents.
  • The use of the infinitive adjunct to a passive verb is stylistically restricted. It frequently occurs in newspapers, scientific prose and business correspondence, but it is not characteristic of literary style, and in social English it is not common at all.
  • The infinitive may serve as an adjunct to an active verb followed by a noun or a pronoun which stands to the infinitive in the relation of a subject. The combination is lexically restricted, because in business correspondence it may be found only after the definite verbs from the following list: to advise, to allow, to ask, to enable, to expert, to help, to prefer, to urge, to want, to wish.
  • e.g. We would advise you to take an all-rich insurance policy.
  • If the period of guarantee has not expired we will ask you to replace the machine by another one.
  • We agree to accept this shipment on condition that you…
  • The complex infinitive adjunct to an active verb is not restricted stylistically and is in extensive use in scientific and fiction literature and also in commercial and business correspondence.
  • The Indefinite Infinitive occurs in contracts in the function of the predicate, expressing obligation and a future action.
  • e.g. Delivery to commence in six to eight months and to be completed in twelve to sixteen months (to commence - will commence).
  • Date of shipment to be determined by date of Bill of Lading (to be determined = will be determined).
  • It is allowed only in texts of contracts and other business documents.
  • Each contract also has constructions with participles.
  • e.g. The letter of credit is to be valid for 90 days, all bank charges being at the expense of the Buyers.
  • Here is a construction with Participle I where it refers to the noun in the General Case, which goes before the participle. It is not common in speech, but it occurs in contracts.
  • Constructions with the Perfect Participle, however, are rare in contracts and show an action prior to another one expressed by the predicate.
  • e.g. We have included in our claim only the cost of material and labor, all other expenses connected with the repair not having been taken into consideration.
  • Some participles which have no explanatory words in contracts can either precede or follow a noun. Mostly they are constructions with Participle II:
  • e.g. the required specification vs. specification required; the enclosed letter vs. the letter enclosed.
  • The Past Participle Passive always follows a noun if it has explanatory words.
  • e.g. a telegram received from London;
  • the cheque attached to the letter.
  • If a participle shows only an action which is made upon the subject, it follows a noun.
  • e.g. The sellers are to inform us of the quantity of the goods loaded.
  • Buyers are to accept or pay for the quantity shipped.
  • The participle showing the quality, if there is one, precedes the noun:
  • e.g. within six weeks of the stipulated time of shipment;
  • illustrated catalogue; damaged goods.
  • 2.3 Lexical peculiarities of contract
  • From the lexicological point of work business papers are of great interest. Their lexicon is rather stable. As a rule, words have their only exact meaning. There are no words which are emotionally coloured. As a result of it, we can point out the words, which are present practically in every contract. For example,
  • «whereas» expresses every man's idea of how a contract begins. Whereas means that the parties have been engaged in a series of transactions resulting in a dispute over accounting between them.
  • e.g. The surplus is to be paid for by the Buyers, whereas short weight is to be refunded by the Sellers.
  • One more compound word with the adverb where is whereby, which means by which and refers to the present contract.
  • e.g. We have concluded the present contract whereby it is agreed as follows…
  • The usage of compound words with adverbs here / there and prepositions is also typical of written formal style of English. Their meaning is made up from meaning of their components. There is no principal difference, though, between meanings of here- / there - compounds.
  • e.g. If shipment of the whole or part is thereby rendered impossible… (thereby = by it; by that means; in that connection)
  • We are sending you herewith statement of your account (herewith - with it / that)
  • All expenses connected therewith being born by… (therewith - with it)
  • The examination of the goods and objection thereto… (thereto = to it)
  • Subject to General Conditions on Sale endorsed hereon… (hereon = on this document)
  • The goods to be shipped as soon thereafter as suitable tonnage obtainable. (thereafter = from that time)
  • The Sellers shall not be responsible for any damage resulting to the Buyers therefrom, (therefrom = from it / them)
  • Hereinafter is a very useful word, doing the job of the six, referred to later in a document. Hereinafter frequently sets up abbreviated names for the contracting parties.
  • e.g. D & R Electrical, Ltd. hereinafter the Buyer.
  • The aforesaid is a cliche which is more preferable in texts of contracts instead of its less formal equivalents: the above-mentioned, the above-written, as was written / said before, and the like.
  • e.g. The aforesaid documents should contain references…
  • It is understood and agreed. On one hand it usually adds nothing, because every clause in the contract is figurally understood and agreed. On the other hand, it adds an implication that the other clauses are not backed up by this phrase. By including one you exclude the other.
  • e.g. The prices in this contract are understood and agreed upon.
  • Including without limitation. Usually people want to specify things underscored in contracts, and this phrase indulges the prediction.
  • e.g. You may assign any and all your rights including without limitation your exclusive British and Commonwealth Rights.
  • To tell the truth, it is a useful phrase because people are always forgetting or neglecting to mention that a great many interests may be involved in what appears to be a simple dialogue. A is controlled by investors, and В - by a foreign parent company. That's why it will be useful to say in such a situation as between us…
  • e.g. We confirm the exchange of telexes as between us follows…
  • Solely on condition that - it's one of a few phrases that can be considered better than its short counterparts. One might ask: «Why not use just if instead of the phrase?» If - by itself, opens a possibility to open contingencies.
  • e.g. If Smith delivers 2000 barrels I will buy them.
  • But it is unclear if you will buy them only from Smith. Therefore, we can use only if as a synonym. Sometimes it works out, but not always. In this case more than an elaborated phrase is justified.
  • e.g. I will buy 2000 barrels solely on condition that Smith delivers them.
  • The phrase makes the conditions of the deal clear.
  • e.g. We can accept the goods solely on condition that you grant us allowance of…per…
  • In contracts there are other prepositional phrases made up from words. They are complex, and one must be attentive using them. The prepositions also provided are the following: on conditions that; on the understanding, etc.
  • e.g. We agree to this only on the understanding that the rate of freight does not exceed.
  • e.g. Claims against the quality of vehicles may be submitted on conditions that the defects are found within 40 days.
  • Such prepositional phrases are practically equal in meaning.
  • Subject to - a few contracts do without this phrase. Many promises can be made good only if certain things occur. The right procedure is to spell out these plausible impediments to the degree that you can reasonably foresee them.
  • e.g. Our agreement is subject to the laws of Connecticut.
  • e.g. The wood goods hereinafter specified subject to a variation in Sellers' option of 20 percent…
  • But there is another meaning of the prepositional phrase. It may express some condition.
  • e.g. We offer you, subject to your acceptance by cable, 1000 tons of ore.
  • Exclusive - it's important in contracts. English is vast and its usage creates difficulties in many cases. Exclusivity as a term means that somebody is bored from dealing with another one in a specified area.
  • In the lexicon of contracts there are many foreign words, first of all, Latin ones, such as pro rata and pari passu. Pro rata proves helpful when payments are to be in proportion refuting prior formulas in a contract.
  • e.g. Demurrage is to be paid per day and pro rata for any part of the running day.
  • Pari passu is used when several people are paid at the same level or time out of a common fund.
  • e.g. Fractions to be considered pari passu.
  • Still there are such words as inferior / superior, they are often used to describe the quality of goods.
  • e.g. The quality of Model B-50 is superior to that of Model B-45.
  • Complaints and claims may arise in connection with inferior quality of the goods, late delivery or non-delivery of goods.
  • A Latin word is not often used in contracts nowadays. Now it means an arbitrary court for a concrete trial. Such Latin words as ultima, proxima are now archaic and rarely used.
  • e.g. If the excess is discovered only on arrival of the goods at their ultima destination in the U.K.
  • On the contrary, such a Latin adjective as extra, which means additional, keeps being widely used in official English, and is quite common for the colloquial style.
  • e.g. In order to obtain delivery we have had to incur extra expenses for which we hold you responsible.
  • e.g. No extra payment is to be effected for any excess weight.
  • The most widespread French words are force majeure, which is an essential clause of almost any contract and serves to describe some unpredictable events that may happen to goods while being delivered or other reasons, and amicably, which means friendly.
  • e.g. Very often the parties amicably agree upon a settlement of the claim in question.
  • e.g. The Sellers and the Buyers shall take all measures to settle amicably any disputes.
  • So, in contracts a person can come across a definite number of words and word combinations which make up lexical peculiarities of the texts. They all are rather bookish and belong to formal style of written English, not being used in informal English and rarely used in spoken formal English.
  • In Chapter 2 the stylistic, grammatical, lexical peculiarities of contract and business correspondence have been analyzed. On the basis of our analysis we can conclude that language of contracts and business correspondence is not always easy to obtain due to their complicated syntactic constructions, specific terms and abbreviations. Linguistic peculiarities of business correspondence and contracts are similar because both of them belong to the formal style of English which is characterized by the conventionality of expressions, combining several ideas within one sentence, the encoded character of the language, absence of emotiveness. All that revealed in texts of contracts and business correspondence through their vocabulary, grammar and style.
  • 3. The translation of official documents
  • 3.1 Problems of adequate translation of official business papers
  • Equivalence is almost full and identical preservation of source text information including the stylistic peculiarities. Equivalent translation is rather relative notion. Its level and specific character change depending on the way of translation and genre of target text. Equivalence of requirements to the translation of scientific, business and, for example, literal texts can also be different. Types of texts determine approach to the translation, choice of translational method and equivalence degrees of target text. Aims and tasks of translator vary when he / she translates poem or novel, scientific article or newspaper information, document or technical instruction.
  • The great number of state, politic, commercial, legal and other documents belongs to official business texts. Their main function is message. They are fully directed on rendering information. Their form in most of cases is typical: addressing, beginning of the text, succession of exposition, finalizing of document, and amount of cliches, in all languages obey strict rules of rhetoric. In target language the structure of source text remains, but cliches may vary at inner form coinciding with content. In European languages culture the standardization of documents is very high. Thus, while translating official business texts into Ukrainian it is not always possible to find equivalent of rhetorical stamps that is why word-for-word translation is sometimes used. This translation is used in diplomatic documents where each word is of great importance. Inappropriate word can cause misinterpretation and even diplomatic conflict.
  • The most widespread language of international business communication is English. But even between English and Americans could appear some linguistic misunderstandings. Such divergences had been accumulated for centuries during the process of English language development in two different historical and cultural surroundings. Thus, the same terms can have different semantic meaning and v.v. different terms can have the same meaning. There were cases when contracting parties were having conversation (with a help of interpreter) and did not suspect that they spoke about different things. It can be explained by low qualification of interpreter or by polysemantic terminology which seems at first identical. For example, term 'industry' in English and French has different meaning: in English it includes agriculture but not in French. Among the most typical examples of polysemy of identical terminology or identity of terms different in meaning is legal terminology. For example, to name the institution in Great Britain and USA different terms can be used. British people use term 'company' while Americans use term 'corporation' though they mean the same thing. Linguistic barrier is also called ethno-linguistic because it is rather ethnic than linguistic. It is based on the difference of cultures, national psychology, other ethnic peculiarities, etc. While drawing up international contracts ethno-linguistic barrier gets new characteristics - of legal context. That is why reaching and confirmation of the agreement between parties depend on their understanding of contract's articles formulated by specific terminology which was developed by the influence of culture and law. Translator has to brake this ethno-linguistic barrier. The main function of the translator is to provide bilingual communication, which has almost the same possibilities as monolingual communication. It can be reached due to right technology of translation used by translator.
  • Any translation has to maintain content, functions, stylistic and communicative value of the source text. While translating official business papers it is not enough just to make right translation in a whole. Translation is to render the information including all details and even the meaning of separate words. It also must be authentic to source text.
  • The problem of translation equivalence is closely connected with the stylistic aspect of translation - one cannot reach the required level of equivalence if the stylistic peculiarities of the source text are neglected. Full translation adequacy includes as an obligatory component the adequacy of style, i. e. the right choice of stylistic means and devices of the target language to substitute for those observed in the source text. This means that in translation one is to find proper stylistic variations of the original meaning rather than only meaning itself.
  • The expression of stylistic peculiarities of the source text in translation is necessary to fully convey the communication intent of the source text. Stylistic peculiarities are rendered in translation by proper choice of the target language translation equivalents with required stylistic coloring. This choice will depend both on the functional style of the source text and the individual style of the source text author.
  • While translating the text a translator first of all must distinguish neutral, bookish and colloquial words and word combinations, translating them by relevant units of the target language. It is sometimes hard to determine the correct stylistic variety of a translation equivalent, then - as in almost all instances of translation - final decision is taken on the basis of context, situation and background information.
  • Style is expressed in proper combination of words rather than only in stylistic coloring of the individual words. Thus, any good translation should be fulfilled with due regard of the stylistic peculiarities of the source text and this applies to all text types rather than only to fiction.
  • It is well known that adequacy and accuracy of international contract translation, its legal terminology help to avoid disputes. In comparison with other documents translation of contract is at the same time easiest and hardest one. This translation is one of the easiest because texts of contract are well structurized, they have strictly formulated standard articles. However, it is one of the hardest because origin and realization of legal systems are revealed in it. Quality of translation is characterized by adequacy. There are some cases when translation seems to be adequate from the linguistic point of work but it is inadequate according to professional language of translation. One should take into account contextual variety of lexeme meanings, which must be translated because in certain case it can have special meaning.
  • Text of contract includes great number of special legal, economical, commercial terminology. One should avoid verbiage, repetition, archaic language, long sentences, inaccuracy of formulation, disparity (between articles of contract), usage of subjunctive mood. Translation of documents is rather complicated process. There are no subjective standards as for the quality of legal translation, but its main criterion is absence of problems and negative consequences caused by translation. Why is it so difficult to translate text of document? First of all each word has not only initial meaning but also some peculiarities which were formed as the result of its development in certain context.
  • Polysemantic words of one language and also words similar by their form are spread in other languages. Secondly, legal language is considered to be separate even inside one language. Words and phrases of this language can have special meaning which has been formulated for centuries. Thirdly, every language has a lot of words of same origin (for example Latin) that are interpreted by legal lexicon of different languages. For example word 'contract': thing that is called contract in French law is not contract in American law. Fourthly, there are different variants of one language. English encloses legal languages of Great Britain, USA, Australia, Canada and other countries. They all can vary syntactically, lexically and semantically. Fifthly, every language has its grammar peculiarities. That is why translator has to interpret text of document. But the question is whether text of contract should be translated or interpreted. Practice shows that legal texts should be translated. According to general rule, texts of polylingual contracts must be identical in content and form as though drawn up in one language. It is to be reached by the translation of source text into target language in that way to correspond to source text.
  • While comparing original texts and their translations three main principles of quality of this effect are distinguished: structure, content and potential of influence. Source and translated texts must be equal in their ability to evoke same reactions of their addressees.
  • Doing translation it is necessary to maintain structure of source text of contract. While rendering structure and syntax of one language into structure and syntax of another language one should decide whether to keep textual form strictly and have a risk of inadequate linguistic standard of translation or to use more free translation which might undermine legal accuracy. To solve this problem it is necessary to analyze legal terms to avoid word-for-word translation that not always explains the meaning of term. It should be noted that trying to choose words identical in form with terms in other language you are making mistake because terms can have different legal meaning. It is also recommended not to make free interpretation of text and to use moderate level of transformation. Identical and adequate translation is the main task and characteristics of ethno-linguistic barrier overcoming. Difficulty of this task while drawing up contract is that parties think and speak different languages, they also use special language, i.e. technical, economical, legal terminology semantic meaning of which can diverge in different languages. Thus, in structure of ethno-linguistic barrier there is special level - conceptual barrier. In texts of international contracts it concerns first of all legal terminology. Very often in legal system of one language there are no institutions, concepts and corresponding terms which would transmit corresponding terminology of another party's legal system adequately. If there is no identical term in one language which explains meaning of foreign term it is recommended to use one of three ways to cope with this situation: 1. Borrowing; 2. Explanation; 3. New term formation.
  • Nowadays this method becomes more and more popular in Ukrainian contracting practice, where English terms are widely used, e.g. default, transaction. But it should be mentioned that one must be careful with foreign words usage in business communication and writing. If foreign words can be replaced by corresponding Ukrainian, then their usage is not appropriate. However, if foreign terms passed into active vocabulary of international communication they can be used in certain business papers. These are financial lexics and legal terminology.
  • The explanation used with translation of terms is inexpedient. For example, terms which name doctrines expressed in idioms 'clean hands' - чисті рук; чесність, бездоганність поведінки; 'rules against perpetuties' - правила проти вічних розпоряджень; доктрина недійсності угод, які встановлюють речові права з терміном виникнення більш ніж через 21 рік після смерті особи чи осіб названих в /, and so on. Term can be explained directly in text instead of original term, as a notice to corresponding part of text where term is used, or separately in that part of text where other terms are explained. There are cases when foreign term can be transliterated or explained, or both transliterated and explained. Sometimes foreign terms, though transliterated and due to it acquire original conception of term, have Ukrainian correspondence. It depends on context what method to choose. For example, term 'abandonment' can have meaning відмова, at the same time in insurance sphere it is transliterated - авансування. Such situation concerns a lot of foreign terms, e.g. 'accept' - 1. прийняття, 2. акцепт, 3. акцептування; 'endorsement' - 1. схвалення, підтвердження, 2. індосамент; 'freight' - 1. вантаж; 2. фрахт.
  • New term formation is rarely used, only when contracting parties agreed on the meaning of certain terms and there is a need in new terms.
  • 3.2 Application of Cross-Cultural Communicative Theory to business translation
  • Before signing a contract or any other important document, business partners begin communication which can be written or oral. If we are talking about forms of written communication first of all we mean business letters which can be considered as the initial part of business relationships. Oral communication includes telephone calls and of course negotiations. Nowadays almost all negotiations with foreign business partners are performed in English and the signing or non signing of contract depend on it. That is why business correspondence and negotiations should be carried out in appropriate and correct language. We have already described the most important peculiarities of business English, but we also would like to raise very important and interesting problem of business doing - the cultural aspect.
  • Those involved in business translation, testify that their linguistic challenges are: special terminology, cliched lexics and its formal register. Still certain linguistic dexterity may not prove efficient under field conditions when besides
  • language problems the translator in business faces quite newly appreciated challenge - cultural or psychological one.
  • The necessity to keep certain 'appearances' and observe conventionalities in international business communication has been acknowledged since the times when success of a company's extension started to be judged by the number of its foreign affiliations or partners.
  • Intensification of international contacts yielded, besides obviously positive results, multiple failures at negotiations, absence of foreign trainees' motivation, and even open conflicts among partners, especially between those belonging to different cultures (Asian and Western, Western and Slavic). Minute feedback analysis of the situations suggests that whereas business matters were handled perfectly, national, ethnic, psychological or cultural factors were completely neglected.
  • This was an impetus for methodologists and linguists to start developing a separate branch of the communication theory - Cross-Cultural Communication Studies. That encompasses ethnic culture and psychology, sociology, and a lot of other adjacent spheres. According to W. Gudykunst, W.G. Stephan, B. Blake and many other researchers of cultural diversity in business context, communication cannot be successful unless ethno-psychological identity of its participants is recognized.
  • W. Gudykunst identified the cultures according to the following criteria: 1) individualism-collectivism, 2) low-high context communication, 3) uncertainty avoidance, 4) power distance. These features greatly influence linguistic and extra-linguistic manner of the translators.
  • In individualistic cultures people are supposed to look after themselves and their immediate family only, while in collectivistic cultures, people belong to in-groups of collectivities which are supposed to look after them on exchange for loyalty. The example of the first culture is presented by United States, whereas Japan is an illustration of the second. This factor is to be taken into consideration in negotiations planning, since a Japanese will never be able to take a decision which may lie beyond the interests of his corporation, and will never speak on his own behalf, whereas the individual achievements of an American may stipulate his risky decisions and possibility to take it independently. At linguistic level it stipulates the use of particular grammar structures - Active versus Passive, I / we pronouns, etc.
  • Communication that predominates in the cultures makes the second important criterion of cultural diversity. A high-context communication, inherent in most Asian cultures, is one in which the most information is implemented either in extra-linguistic situation of communication or is shared by the communicants, while very little is coded. A low-context communication takes place in terms of explicit code, like in Germany or the United States. This may cause the necessity to make certain aspects in business communication, e.g. price negotiations, more explicit for the Americans and less direct for the Japanese or the Chinese through the use / avoidance of certain direct grammar constructions and vocabulary.
  • Cultures with high uncertainty avoidance have a lower tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, which expresses itself in higher levels of anxiety and energy release, greater need for formal rules and absolute truth, and less tolerance for people in groups with deviant ideas or behavior. It was empirically confirmed that in organizations, workers in high uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer a specialist career and clear instructions, avoid conflict, and disapprove of competition between employees more than workers in low uncertainty avoidance cultures, e.g. Denmark versus Japan. It does not only stipulate the pattern of behavior with businessmen representing these cultures but also the linguistic strategy in translation, e.g. presence or absence of mitigation markers.
  • Power distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations accept that power as distributed unequally. Individuals from high power distance cultures accept power as part of the society. Superiors there consider their subordinates to be different from themselves (Arab cultures). Low power distance cultures believe that power should be used only when it is legitimate and prefer expert or legitimate power (Western cultures). This stands for observation of subordination in the groups of businessmen, which is, for example, strict in Philippines and optional in the Netherlands. This directly influences the use of the certain vocabulary register depending on the level of communication (horizontal, with peers, or vertical, with subordinates or superiors) and the tone (type of modality, from orders to mild advice or suggestion).
  • The application of Cross-Cultural Communicative Theory to the business translation looks rather significant since it crucially changes the very concept of the translator's role in business communication. Supplied by the cultural knowledge, translator does not simply find equivalents of the ideas in different languages. His strategy is to maintain rapport between cultures by finding the forms of mutually accepted manner of communication, which raises his role to the global level.
  • The development of business correspondence in Ukrainian, need of official documents translation from English into Ukrainian and vice versa after proclaiming Ukrainian language to be state on the territory of Ukraine, give special significance to the language of business communication and especially to English as it is language of international communication. Business correspondence obeys certain rules of exposition and arranging of the information. Business letters have common and national specific characteristics. In all language cultures formation of official style was presupposed by the development of State system, government apparatus and by the need to confirm legal relationships of juridical and private persons by documents. The world practice shows that despite all the peculiarities of national systems of business correspondence the main requirements to the structure, fullness of content and arrangement are stable because they had been forming historically and were determined by the peculiarities of business communication.
  • National specific character in business letters is performed at communicative level because peculiarities of historical development in this sphere in every nation caused the formation of specific communicational phrases and stylistic constructions. That is why while comparing standards of official style of Ukrainian and of business correspondence in particular with the existing standards of English business correspondence one can distinguish ethno-linguistic characteristics of Ukrainian and English business correspondence which should be taken into account in translation. Ukrainian business correspondence is characterized by the functionality (the so-called 'telegraph style'), restraint and rationality, absence of emotional coloring, estrangement of exposition that expressed through rationality and strictness of linguistic forms and patterns. In comparison with Ukrainian style, style of English business letters is characterized by more independent choice of words and syntactic constructions, by the intention of author to show his personal interest and willingness for close partnership with addressee, by hierarchy of polite addresses depending on the level of formal relationships between communicants.
  • 3.3 Grammatical aspect of translation of official documents
  • The way of translation of official business documents is opposite of literary translation where concerns the freedom of translator's actions and choices. Literary translation is more art than craft which is accounted by the nature of literary texts. Translation of a literary text is unique and cannot be standardized and obeys almost no rules.
  • The task of an interpreter translating official documents is to find target language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with the document content.
  • Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the structure of a sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical patterns, which characterize the style.
  • Here are some English constructions which can cause special difficulties while translating.
  • Depending on the function the Infinitive plays in the sentence it can be translated in the following ways:
  • 1. As an adverbial modifier of purpose the Infinitive can express an independent idea that adds some new information about its subject; the adverb «only» is omitted in translation, e.g. The president announced his resignation after the failure of his drive to push through the merger of the two countries last summer.
  • Президент повідомив про свою відставку після того, як влітку минулого року його кампанія за об'єднання двох країн зазнала невдачі.
  • 2.After adjectives «the last, the only» and ordinal numerals the Infinitive is translated as the predicate of an attributive subordinate clause, its tense form is determined by the context.
  • e.g. He was the first high official to be admitted to the inner council of government, to the cabinet.
  • Він був першим високопоставленим службовцем, якого було допущено до закритих нарад з питань державного управління і навіть до засідань кабінету.
  • «if + noun + be + infinitive» can be translated as «для того щоб».
  • e.g. In any event, members of the association should be prepared to put aside partisan interests if consensus on the abovementioned principles is to be achieved.
  • У будь-якому випадку, щоб дійти згоди щодо зазначених принципів, члени асоціації повинні облишити свої партійні інтереси.
  • 3.The Complex Object with the Infinitive is translated as an object subordinate clause,
  • e.g. Both experiments revealed the rated dimensions to be highly interrelated.
  • Обидва експерименти показали, що розрахункові параметри дуже тісно пов'язані між собою.
  • 4.The Complex Subject with passive forms of the verbs «think, expect, show, see, find, argue, know, mean, consider, regard, report, believe, hold, suppose, note, claim, admit, interpret, etc.» is translated as a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause.
  • e.g. Still they can hardly be said to have come to the agreement.
  • І все ж навряд чи можна стверджувати, що вони дійшли згоди.
  • 5.The Complex Subject with active forms of the verbs «happen, appear, see, prove, turn out, be likely, be certain, etc.» is translated in two possible ways:
  • - the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian parenthesis and the English Infinitive into a Ukrainian predicate.
  • e.g. So, there appear to be two choices. Отже, виявляється, вибір існує;
  • - the English finite form transformed into Ukrainian main clause («малоймовірно», « мені здається», etc.) and the English Infinitive into Ukrainian predicate in an object subordinate clause.
  • e.g. Neither proposal is likely to work.
  • Малоймовірно, щоб якась з цих пропозицій виявилась слушною. If the English predicate has an object «by somebody» such predicate-object clusters are translated as a parenthesis «на думку» «за даними».
  • Depending on the function of the Gerund in the sentence it can be translated as:
  • - A noun.
  • e.g. Banking on a loss of nerve within the board of trustees may turn out to be misguided.
  • Розрахунок на те, що члени ради опікунів втратять витримку, може виявитися невірним.
  • - An infinitive.
  • e.g. Under the pressure of national campaign, he showed a positive gift for saying the wrong things in the wrong words at the wrong time.
  • В умовах напруженої кампанії, що проводиться в країні, він виявляв безумовний дар говорити не те, що треба, не так, як треба, і не тоді, коли треба.
  • - A participle.
  • e.g. In Washington there is quite satisfaction that the French by joining the float have indirectly acknowledged that the U.S. was right all along.
  • У Вашингтоні висловлюють задоволення з приводу того, що Франція, приєднавшись до країн з плаваючим курсом валюти, хоча і непрямо, але ж визнала, що США були повністю праві.
  • The Perfect Gerund denotes an action which is prior to the action expressed by finite form of the verb.
  • e.g. After having been colonies for a long time, many Asian and African countries have now become independent states.
  • Багато країн Азії та Африки, що протягом тривалого часу були колоніями, перетворилися па незалежні.
  • Very often constructions with participles are used in official documents. Participle I can be translated as:
  • an attributive clause;
  • an adverbial clause;
  • a separate sentence.

• 383. The peculiarities of news reports in English mass media texts
  Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 14.04.2012

  styles (FS) are the subsystems of language, each subsystem having its own peculiar features in what concern vocabulary means, syntactical constructions, and even phonetics.The appearance and existence of FS is connected with the specific conditions of communication in different spheres of human life. FS differ not only by the possibility or impossibility of using some elements but also due to the frequency of their usage. For example: some terms can appear in the colloquial style but the possibility of its appearance is quite different form the possibility to meet it in an example of scientific style.classification of Functional Style (F.S) is a very complicated problem, that is why we will consider ideas of I.R. Galperin, bearing in mind that I.R Galperin treats functional styles as patterns of the written variety of language thus excluding colloquial FS. Both scholars agree that each FS can be recognized by one or more leading features. But I.R Galperin pays more attention to the coordination of language means and stylistic devices whereas Arnold connects the specific features of each FS with its peculiarities in the sphere of communication. According to I.R. Galperin, a functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication. A functional style should be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of the language. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant and can deviate from the invariant, even breaking away with it.FS is a relatively stable system at the given stage in the development of the literary language, but it changes, and sometimes considerably, from one period to another. Therefore FS is a historical category. Thus, for example in the 17th century it was considered that not all words can be used in poetry, and that a separate poetic style exists. Later, in the 19th century romanticism rejected the norms of poetic style and introduced new vocabulary to poetry. The development of each style is predetermined by the changes in the norms of standard English. It is also greatly influenced by changing social conditions, the progress of science and the development of cultural life. Every functional style of language is marked by a specific use of language means, thus establishing its own norms which, however, are subordinated to the norm-invariant and which do not violate the general notion of the literary norm. The writers of the given period in the development of the literary language contribute greatly to establishing the system of norms of their period. It is worth noting that the investigations of language norms at a given period are to great extent maintained on works of men of letters. Selection, or deliberate choice of language, and the ways the chosen elements are treated are the main distinctive features of individual style. Individual style is a unique combination of language units, expressive means and stylistic devices peculiar to a given writer, which makes that writer's works or even utterances easily recognizable . Naturally, the individual style of a writer will never be entirely independent of the literary norms and canons of the given period. But the adaptations of these canons will always be peculiar and therefore distinguishable. Individual style is based on a thorough knowledge of the contemporary language and allows certain justifiable deviations from the rigorous norms. Individual style requires to be studied in a course of stylistics in so far as it makes use of the potentialities of language means, whatever the characters of these potentialities may be.All men of letters have a peculiar individual manner of using language means to achieve the effect they desire. Writers choose language means deliberately. This process should be distinguished from language peculiarities which appear in everyday speech of this or that particular individual (idiolect).stylePublistic (P.S) style is a perfect for example: historical changeability of stylistic differentiation of discourses. In Greece it was practiced in oral form which was named P.S in accordance with the name of its corresponding genre. P.S is famous for its explicit pragmatic function of persuasion directed at influencing the reader and shaping his works in accordance with the argumentation of the author. We find in PS a blend of the rigorous logical reasoning, reflecting the objective state of things and a strong subjectivity reflecting the authors personal feelings and emotions towards the discussed subject. Sub styles: The oratory essays, journalistic articles, radio and TV commentary. Oratory it makes use of a great humbler of expressive means to arouse and keep the public's interest: repetition, gradation, antithesis, rhetorical questions, emotive words, elements of colloquial speech. Radio and TV commentary is less impersonal and more expressive and emotional. The essay is very subjective and the most colloquial of the all sub styles of the publicistic style. It makes use of expressive means and tropes. The journalistic articles are impersonal.

• 384. The philosophy should meet the challenge of the new millennium
  Статья пополнение в коллекции 20.11.2006

  What does the new millennium require? If we look at our world as if looking at an ant hill, we will see that the ants are no longer rushing to build new hills, they are no longer thinking of how to supply their queen with provision and care, we will se quite another picture: the ants are looking for other ant hills to destroy them, they are killing other insects even if they have sufficient food, they are thinking of how to become a queen of the whole colony so that they would get all the food and power. The “ants” have changed; they have forgot their real purpose of existing. The main problem is that there is nothing or nobody that could teach them how to live properly, thats why they choose their own style of life.

• 385. The political thinking of Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau decisively shaped the western intellectual trad...
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 13.04.2006

  To force the laws to work in a natural state, the nature has given everyone an opportunity to judge violated laws and to impose a penalty on trespassers . However in a natural state there are no institutions, which could impartially solve disputes between the people ,to prove and carry out appropriate punishment for an aggressor .All this derivates uncertainty. To overcome this , to provide execution of the natural laws, equality and freedom, protection of the person and property , people decided to form the political community, to find out the state. But, the tricky question derives then , if there isnt agreement between people to obey the laws how people can come to a state? There are always people like the anarchists who wouldnt like to follow even the majority of the mankind. Locke emphasizes the moment of the agreement : " Any peaceful formation of the state has in the basis the agreement of the people ". According to Locke only the majority of the community can do this. “The obligation to obey to the decision of the majority and to consider it final ". I think such conclusions describe Locke as a very contemporary and democratic thinker at his time. A time when arguing with kings word was mortally. A total refusal by the individuals of all natural rights, belonging to them, and freedom for the benefit of the state (that took place, for example, in the doctrine of Hobbes) Locke considers unacceptable. The right on life and possession of property, freedom and equality the man does not alienate to anybody and at any circumstances These not alienated values - final borders of authority and action of the state which are prohibited to violate.

• 386. The positive image as are important component of being competitive on the tourist market
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 27.03.2012

  §Analyzing of publishing in the mass medias better to use all methods in total, as each of them give the different value of a question. The questionnaire method as example gives more statistical and mass information about characteristics and the status of image. It shows a public opinion and condition to the firm. Due to this method it is necessary to know the influence of an advertising on a consumer. Is it a correct forming of the image in the people mind?focus group method is the innovation in the researching of image. Always a segment is divided into several focus groups and PR-manager holds a conversation with any group. During the contact participants give their opinions and offer ideas about the image formation. Participants of such groups are clients of the company, who gives value about image. Using this method it is possible to learn strong and poor characteristic of the travel agency and also an opinion of consumers about competitors. interworking method is the deepest. Always an interwork is conducted with a one people who a man of importance group for the travel agency. He is asked about how he works the organization, what he could change, add and advice. The aim of the interwork is achieve the opinion of the consumer about the company on the level of consciousness. What a person senses when uses of services, what emotions feels, and what he fells when dont use the service of this agency.can get information about the company from mass media, special magazine and transmission on TV, where the production is compared and tested. The forum is also the way to research the attention tourists to the agency. whole picture is compiled about image after the giving information. Data is analyzed in the marketing department. If there is the negative effect from something factor (an unsuccessful advertising, a public statement, mistakes in service, etc.) it is necessary to correct it. Image of the organization is developed and after several time the result of changing is analyzed once more.

• 387. The Prisoners’ Dilemma (PD) and its applications
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 04.06.2010

• 388. The problem of violence
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 27.06.2010

  Stаtе tеrrоr іs аlsо оrgаnіzеd vіоlеncе. Іn hіs bооk, Humаnіsm аnd Tеrrоr, Frеnch іntеllеctuаl оf thе lеft, Mаurіcе Mеrlеаu-Pоnty, trіеd tо mаkе sеnsе оf thе vіоlеncе usеd by Stаlіn аs а rоutіnе prаctіcе оf stаtе pоwеr. Thіs wаs а tіmе, іn thе lаtе 1940s, whеn thе truе еxtеnt оf thе hоrrоrs оf thе dеpоrtаtіоns аnd lаbоr cаmps, thе gulаg аrchіpеlаgо, pоlіtіcаl shоw trіаls аnd еxеcutіоns wаs fіrst bеcоmіng knоwn оutsіdе thе USSR. Tеrrоr, іn thіs sеnsе, dіffеrs frоm cоmmоn crіmе, crіmеs аgаіnst humаnіty, wаrfаrе аnd pоvеrty. Thе mаіn dіffеrеncе іs іts еxpеrіеncеd аs cоmplеtеly rаndоm аnd іndіscrіmіnаtе. Thіs іs аn еxpеrіеncе cоmmоn tо thоsе whо lіvеd thrоugh thе аftеrmаth оf thе Frеnch Rеvоlutіоn, whеn thе tеrm tеrrеur wаs fіrst usеd іn thіs sеnsе, аnd аs rеcеntly аs thе іnfаmоus Rеd Tеrrоr оf Cоl. Mеngіstu іn Еthіоpіа. Thе cіtіzеns uncеrtаіnty іs іntеntіоnаlly prоducеd by thе аppаrаtus оf sоcіаl cоntrоl аnd survеіllаncе. А thrеаt іs mаdе tо аppеаr tо lіе cоnstаntly оvеrhеаd іn еvеry аspеct оf dаіly lіfе fоr аny оnе whо іs dіslоyаl. “Thе wаlls hаvе еаrs” аnd cаn dеnоuncе yоu, еvеn frоm wіthіn thе prіvаcy оf yоur bеdrооm. Yоur іnnоcеncе оr guіlt іs nоt rеlеvаnt, nоr аrе аny rеаsоnаblе prеcаutіоns. Yоu cаnnоt mоvе tо а sаfеr cіty, “аwаy frоm thе frоnt lіnе". Yоu cаnnоt sееk chаrіty, dеvеlоpmеnt аssіstаncе, оr jоіn а sеlf-hеlp grоup. Nоthіng cаn prоtеct yоu еxcеpt cоmplеtе, unrеlеntіng аccеptаncе оf еxtеrnаl cоmmаnd аnd аuthоrіty.

• 389. The problems of oral translation
  Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

• 390. The problems of the Subjunctive Mood in English
  Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2009

   

  1. Е.А. Корнеева «Пособие по морфологии английского языка» Москва, «Высшая школа» 1974
  2. Л.Л. Иофик, Л.П. Чахоян «Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике английского языка» Санкт Петербург, «Просвещение» 1972
  3. Е.М. Гордон, И.П. Крылова «Грамматика современного английского языка» Москва, «Высшая школа» 1974
  4. Б.А. Ильиш «Строй современного английского языка» Санкт-Петербург, «Просвещение» 1971
  5. В. Каушанская «Грамматика английского языка» Санкт-Петербург, «Просвещение» 1973
  6. Л.С. Бархударов «Очерки по морфологии современного английского языка» Москва, «Высшая школа» 1975
  7. H. Sweet «A new English grammar» Oxford, 1988
  8. G.O. Curme «A Grammar of the English Language» London New-York, 1931
  9. H. Whitehall «Structural Essential of English» New-York, 1956
  10. O. Jespersen «The philosophy of Grammar», London, 1935 «A modern English Grammar» (Part IV), Heidelberg, 1931
  11. В. Виноградов «Русский язык» Москва, 1947
  12. Erick Segal «Love story»
  13. M. Drabble «Jerusalem the Golden»
  14. M. Dickens «One Pair of Hands»
  15. A. Cassidy «Shopping for One»
  16. A. Brookner «A Start in Life»
  17. J.R.R. Tolkien «The Lord of the Rings»
  18. Yelena M. Merkulova «English Reading, writing and conversation» St. Petersburg «SOYUZ» 2004

• 391. The production of 2H-labeled amino acids by a new mutant of RuMP fucultative methylotroph Вrevibacte...
  Статья пополнение в коллекции 26.10.2006

  For our studies we have used a new non-traditional producer of phenylalanine: a leucine auxotroph of the facultative methylotrophic bacterium Brevibacterium methylicum obtaining the NAD+ dependent methanol dehydrogenase (EC 1.6.99.3) variant of the RuMP cycle of carbon assimilation, with maximum productivity of phenylalanine on protonated medium M9 - 0.95 gram per liter of growth medium. According to experiments, various compositions of [U- 2H]methanol and 2H2O were added to the growth media as hydrogen (deuterium) atoms could be assimilated both from methanol and H2O. The growth characteristics of the non-adapted bacteria and production of phenylalanine in the presence of increasing content of 2H2O are given in Table (Expts. 3-10) relative to the control (1) on protonated medium and to the adapted bacteria (Expt. 10). The odd numbers of experiment were chosen to investigate whether the replacement of [U -2H]methanol of its protonated analogue has a positive effect on growth characteristics in the presence of 2H2O. The maximum deuterium content was reached under conditions (10) and (10) in which we used 98% (v/v) 2H2O and 2% (v/v) [U -2H]methanol. In the control, the duration of a lag-phase did not exeed twenty hours, the yield of microbial biomass (wet weight) and production of phenylalanine were 150 and 0.95 gram per 1 liter of growth medium (see relative values in Table, Expt. 1). The results suggested, that below 49% (v/v) of 2H2O (Table, Expts. 2-4) there was a small inhibition of growth indicators compared with the control (1), above 49% (v/v) of 2H2O (Table, Expts. 5-8), however growth was markedly reduced, while at the upper content of 2H2O (Table, Expts. 9-10) growth was extremely small. With increasing content of 2H2O in the media there was a simultaneous increase both of the lag-phase and generation time. Thus, under experimental conditions (10) where we used 98% (v/v) 2H2O and 2% (v/v) [U -2H]methanol, the lag-phase was more than three and the generation time - 2.2 times that on ordinary protonated medium (1). The production of phenylalanine and yield of biomass were decreased on medium with 98% (v/v) 2H2O and 2% (v/v) [U -2H]methanol by 2.7 and 3.3 times respectively; in contrast to the adapted bacteria (10), the growth characteristics of non-adapted bacteria on maximally deuterated medium were strongly inhibited (Table, Expt. 10). The replacement of protonated methanol by [U- 2H]methanol caused small alterations in growth characteristics (Table, Expts. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10) relative to experiments, where we used protonated methanol (Table, Expts. 3, 5, 7, 9).

• 392. The profile of an effective manager
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 14.08.2010

• 393. The Profile of Effective Manager
  Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 24.07.2006

  We should ask our self the question: Are there people who have more managerial skills than others, because they are able to learn from their experience what they need to know to manage effectively. Livingstone S (1971) found three characteristics of men who learned to manage effectively.

  • Need to manage: to be able to manage effectively, you should have a strong desire and satisfaction to influence the performance of others. Many of those who aspires high- level positions are driven by the expectations of high salaries or high status, but are not motivated to get effective results through others. Those managers dont learn how to develop an effective managerial career, because there is a lack of willingness to manage. They are not able to devote enough time and energy to find a suitable way to manage. So the need to manage is a crucial factor in determining whether a person will learn and apply in practice what is necessary to get effective results on the job. For example, managers who are outstanding individual performers, but with a lack to motivate others or to delegate tasks to subordinates, rarely advance far up the organizational hierarchy because they will be blocked by low performances of a large number of subordinates.
  • Need for power: Since managers are primarily concerned with directing and influencing subordinates, they should be characterized by a high need for power. We could refer to the above chapter about leadership and power.
  • Capacity for empathy: The capacity for empathy is ”the ability to cope with the emotional reactions that inevitably occur when people work together in an organization” (Livingstone S. 1971). Managers who are perfectly capable to learn from their job experience, or who are able to apply management techniques successfully, often fail because their affinity with others is entirely intellectual or cognitive. They are emotionally blind. They are not capable to deal with the emotional reactions that are crucial in gaining the willing cooperation of subordinates. It is very difficult to teach people how to cope with human emotions.

• 394. The role of deuterium in molecular evolution
  Статья пополнение в коллекции 26.10.2006

  So, according to the theory of absolute speeds the break of С-1H-bonds can occur faster, than С-2H-bonds (C-2H-bonds are more durable than C-1 , mobility of an ion 2H+ is less, than mobility of 1Н+, the constant of ionization 2Н2О is a little bit less than ionization constant of 2Н2О. Thus, in principle, the structures of [U -2H]labeled macromolecules may to be more friable that those are forming in ordinary H2O. But, nevertheless, the stability of [U -2H]labeled macromolecules probably depending on what particular bond is labeled with deuterium (covalent bonds -C2H that causing the instability or hydrogen bonds causing the stabilization of conformation of macromolecules via forming the three-dimentional netwok of hydrogen(deuterum) bonds in macromolecule) and what precise position of the macromolecule was labeled with deuterium. For example, the very valuable and sensitive for deuterium substitution position in macromolecule is the reactive center (primary isotopic effects). The non-essential positions in macromolecule are those ones that situated far away from the reactive center of macromolecule (secondary isotopic effects). It is also possible to make a conclusion, that the sensitivity of various macromolecules to substitution on 2Н bears the individual character and depending on the structure of macromolecule itself, and thus, can be varried. From the point of work of physical chemistry, the most sensitive to replacement of 1Н+ on 2H+ can appear the apparatus of macromolecular biosyntesis and respiration system, those ones, which use high mobility of protons (deuterons) and high speed of break of hydrogen (deuterium) bonds. From that it is posible to assume, that the macromolecules should realize a special mechanisms (both at a level of primary structure and a folding of macromolecules) which could promote the stabilizition of the macromolecular structure in 2H2O and somewhat the functional reorganization of their work in 2H2O.

• 395. The role of ideology in the development of modern states
  Статья пополнение в коллекции 31.10.2011

  Ideology as a phenomenon of influence on society exists or existed in any modern society. Among them are outstanding representatives of the social democratic ideology, socialist ideology, liberalism, liberalism, fascism, fascism, conservatism and Neo-conservatism. Some of these ideologies in our time is almost not there, because in terms of historical development was rejected inhumane works. Consider these ideologies in more detail in the examples. As social democratic ideology, it is a modern ideology that is very powerful, and aims at equitable distribution of all material goods and spiritual values, depending on the labor spent. The most widely this ideology found in countries such as Germany, Austria, Britain, France and Italy. The main objectives in these countries is to provide a decent life based on liberty, in the political sphere - is the creation of conditions for the formation and activities of public authorities on the principles of democracy and in the economic sphere - the creation of an efficient market economy. The main functions of the state owned health care, environmental protection, to ensure the preservation and development of the national identity of peoples living in the state, participation in international promotion and protection of human rights. Social democracy has been and remains one of the most influential ideological and political currents. 70 largest and most influential social democratic parties in which there are about 17 million people, united in the Socialist International. In recent years the ranks of the Social Democrats replenished former communist parties. Socialist ideology consistently defended the interests of workers, social progress and believed in the wonderful future of humanity. Socialist ideology - a socio-economic ideas, which is the main slogan of social justice. Countries with such an ideology has such features: public ownership of the means of production, power is concentrated in the hands of one party, the market plays a minor role. Modern countries are North Korea and the representatives of Cuba. Recently, our position social ideology began to increase in Latin America. One of the main ideas of conservatism is unnatural and undesirable conversion of society through revolutionary changes. Therefore we can say that conservatism - is opposed to the revolution. The main ideas of it are: denial of a contractual nature of the state and the belief that the state can not pay attention to all the various social issues and relationships. Based on these basic provisions of conservatives defended only certain principles such as history, life, law, stability, tradition, religion, government, etc. This ideology enjoyed popularity in England, where authorities have come to the Conservative Party, led by M. Thatcher, expanded in FNR, Italy and France. If we look at Neo-conservatism, it is political ideology, which adapts the traditional values of conservatism to the realities of post-industrial society and determines government policy and the policies of leading Western countries in recent decades. Status neokonservatyzmu in the U.S. is not official. He caught on here in 70 years of XX century. As a political ideology, Neo-conservatism very seriously prepared and aware of its power. Preconditions for the emergence of this ideology began to peep from the time of "cold war". Management of the country tried to create a worthy rival ideologies such as communism. Neoconservatives seek to revive human values such as hard work, high morals, religion, and in the economic field, return to the market self-regulation, the social - the principle of "every man for himself"; social protection in the State shall apply only to those who are not able to to work. Fascism - an ideology that denied democracy and open government, sustained violence and terror to suppress political opponents and any form of dissent, involved the division of people according to racial and discrimination. Fascism has played a crucial role in solving the second world war, which suffered a crushing defeat. this defeat did not put an end to fascism. Since shortly after the war in some Western countries - Italy, USA, France, Britain and FNR he already began to revive as neo-fascism, which preached the same ideological works. Today fascist organizations operating in all European countries, America and most countries in Asia, Australia, Asia and former Soviet countries.... As for liberalism, it is ideology, based on the idea that every person knows what is best for her. Modern political liberalism also includes the conditions of universal suffrage, regardless of gender, race or economic status, the best system is liberal democracy. Liberalism stands for individual rights to property, focuses on human rights related to consciousness and way of life, protection from government interference in personal life. This ideology spread in the early 90s in Russia during perestroika, but had positive and negative consequences. As a result, the majority of Russia's ambiguous attitude towards liberalism. There still exist a number of parties in the liberal "Yabloko", "Lyberalnoe Case" and "democratic alliance". Neo-liberalism - the ideology that is based on the principle of self-regulation of the economy, free competition and economic freedom. It also provides for increased economic and social role of the state, out of the necessity of establishing a business partnership between government, business and labor at all levels of the economic mechanism. Practical usage he had received during the Roosevelt when he introduced the "policy of the new course." Neoliberalism is a homogeneous flow. The "right" wing believes that the problems of modern society is possible through the creation of the Government in accordance with the requirements of morality, stands for "minimal" state. "Left" wing, sharing the basic provisions of the concept of a "new society" Roosevelt, denies class antagonisms, brings them into conflict between production and consumption. The main find no contradiction between rich and poor and between those who want to maintain the "industrial society" and who wants to move forward. the liberal movement has up to 110 parties, 60 of them united in Liberal International, founded in 1947 in Ukraine as a political doctrine of liberalism represented by a group of various liberal parties and movements. His supporters advocated the formation of the free market, providing conditions for various forms of economic activities and competition. All these ideologies are of great importance for the history. They passed all the stages of formation and were either accepted or rejected by society. Some of them function in our time. World practice has developed many ideological systems. Their position is based on various methods of belief and knowledge of the world. The role of ideology - one of the main roles in political life at any stage of development. With the arrival of leaders is changing, with more varied and management techniques. Even if the ideology of a country called very difficult to see that in it there before, because they certainly left their mark its former presence. For example, in Germany during World War II was influenced by the ideology of fascism, unfortunately some of the manifestations of his left and on our time not only in this country, but also in some Western European countries. Conservatism has retained its place in the UK, where subject to principles such as stability and the state. Liberalism represented by a small circle of parties in the program which includes not only the principles of that ideology, but also some principles from other ideological currents. The most widespread is the social democratic ideology, which operates in France, Italy, Austria and Germany.

• 396. The role played by the german and scandinavian tribes on english language
  Информация пополнение в коллекции 11.09.2007

  The Relation of Borrowed and Native Words. It will be seen from the words in the above lists that in many cases the new words could have supplied no real need in the English vocabulary. They made their way into English simply as the result of the mixture of the two races. The Scandinavian and the English words were being used side by side, and the survival of one or the other must often have been a matter of chance. Under such circumstances a number of things might happen. Where words in the two languages coincided more or less in form and meaning the modern word stands at the same time for both its English and its Scandinavian ancestors. Examples of such words are burn, cole, drag, fast, gang, murk(y), scrape, Ilick. Where there were differences of form the English word often survived. Beside such English words as bench, goat, heathen, yarn, few, grey, loath, leap, flay corresponding Scandinavian forms are found quite often in Middle English literature and in some cases still exist in dialectal use. We find scrcdc, skcllc, skcrc with the hard pronunciation of the initial consonant group beside the standard English shred, shell, sheer, wae beside woe, the surviving form except in welaway, Mgg the Old Norse equivalent of O.E, treowe (true). Again where the same idea was expressed by different words in the two languages it was often, as we should expect, the English word that lived on. We must remember that the area in which the two languages existed for a time side by side was confined to the northern and eastern half of England. Examples are the Scandinavian words attlen beside English think (in the sense of purpose, intend), bolnen beside swell, f men (O.N. tyna) beside lose, site beside sorrow, roke (fog) beside mist, reike beside path. (3) In other cases the Scandinavian word replaced the native word, often after the two had long remained in use concurrently. Our word awe from Scandinavian, and its cognate eye (aye) from Old English are both found in the Ormulum (c. 1200). In the earlier part of the Middle English period the English word is commoner, but by 1300 the Scandinavian form begins to appear with increasing frequency, and finally replaces the Old English word. The two forms must have been current in the everyday speech of the northeast for several centuries, until finally the pronunciation awe prevailed. The Old English form is not found after the fourteenth century. The same thing happened with the two words for egg, ey (English) and egg (Scandinavian). Caxton complains at the close of the fifteenth century (see the passage quoted below, p. 236) that it was hard even then to know which to use. In the words sister (O.N. syster, O.E. swcostor), boon (O.N. bön, O.E. ben), loan (O.N. Ian, O.E. ten), weak (O.N. veikr, O.E. tvâc) the Scandinavian form lived. Often a good Old English word was lost, since it expressed the same idea as the foreign word. Thus the verb take replaced the O.E. niman;1 cast superseded the O.E. weorpan, while it has itself been largely displaced now by throw; cut took the place of O.E. snîÖan and ceorfan. Old English had several words for anger (O.N. angr), including torn, grama, and irre, but the Old Norse word prevailed. In the same way the Scandinavian word bark replaced O.E. rind, wing replaced O.E. jehra, sky took the place of iiprodor and wolccn (the latter now being preserved only in the poetical word welkin), and window (= wind-eye) drove out the equally appropriate English word eagjiyrcl (eye-thirl, i.e., eye-hole; cf. nostril = nose thirl, nose hole). (4) Occasionally both the English and the Scandinavian words were retained with a difference of meaning or use, as in the following pairs (the English word is given first): nonay, whole hale, rearraise, fromfro, craftskill, hideskin, sickill. (5) In certain cases a native word which was apparently not in common use was reinforced, if not reintroduced, from the Scandinavian. In this way we must account for such words as till, dale, rim, blend, run, and the Scotch bairn. (6) Finally, the English word might be modified, taking on some of the character of the corresponding Scandinavian word. Give and get with their hard g are examples, as are scatter beside shatter, and Thursday instead of the O.E. Thunresdseg. Some confusion must have existed in the Danish area between the Scandinavian and the English form of many words, a confusion that is clearly betrayed in the survival of such hybrid forms as shriek and screech. All this merely goes to show that in the Scandinavian influence on the English language we have to do with the intimate mingling of two tongues. The results are just what we should expect when two rather similar languages are spoken for upwards of two centuries in the same area.

• 397. The School Education in Great Britain (Школьное образование в Великобритании)
  Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 16.06.2010

• 398. The Science Of Grammar
  Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 17.02.2010

  He science of grammar, whatever we may suppose to be its just limits, does not appear to have been better cultivated in proportion as its scope was narrowed. Nor has its application to our tongue, in particular, ever been made in such a manner, as to do great honour to the learning or the talents of him that attempted it. What is new to a nation, may be old to the world. The development of the intellectual powers of youth by instruction in the classics, as well as the improvement of their taste by the exhibition of what is elegant in literature, is continually engaging the attention of new masters, some of whom may seem to effect great improvements; but we must remember that the concern itself is of no recent origin. Plato and Aristotle, who were great masters both of grammar and of philosophy, taught these things ably at Athens, in the fourth century before Christ. Varro, the grammarian, usually styled the most learned of the Romans, was contemporary with the Saviour and his apostles. Quintilian lived in the first century of our era, and before he wrote his most celebrated book, taught a school twenty years in Rome, and received from the state a salary which made him rich. This "consummate guide of wayward youth," as the poet Martial called him, being neither ignorant of what had been done by others, nor disposed to think it a light task to prescribe the right use of his own language, was at first slow to undertake the work upon which his fame now reposes; and, after it was begun, diligent to execute it worthily, that it might turn both to his own honour, and to the real advancement of learning.He says, at the commencement of his book: "After I had obtained a quiet release from those labours which for twenty years had devolved upon me as an instructor of youth, certain persons familiarly demanded of me, that I should compose something concerning the proper manner of speaking; but for a long time I withstood their solicitations, because I knew there were already illustrious authors in each language, by whom many things which might pertain to such a work, had been very diligently written, and left to posterity. But the reason which I thought would obtain for me an easier excuse, did but excite more earnest entreaty; because, amidst the various opinions of earlier writers, some of whom were not even consistent with themselves, the choice had become difficult; so that my friends seemed to have a right to enjoin upon me, if not the labour of producing new instructions, at least that of judging concerning the old. But although I was persuaded not so much by the hope of supplying what was required, as by the shame of refusing, yet, as the matter opened itself before me, I undertook of my own accord a much greater task than had been imposed; that while I should thus oblige my very good friends by a fuller compliance, I might not enter a common path and tread only in the footsteps of others. For most other writers who have treated of the art of speaking, have proceeded in such a manner as if upon adepts in every other kind of doctrine they would lay the last touch in eloquence; either despising as little things the studies which we first learn, or thinking them not to fall to their share in the division which should be made of the professions; or, what indeed is next to this, hoping no praise or thanks for their ingenuity about things which, although necessary, lie far from ostentation: the tops of buildings make a show, their foundations are unseen."--_Quintiliani de Inst. Orat., Prooemium._

• 399. The selection and adaptation of the material on the topic "Towns and places"
  Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 30.04.2010

  A further extension of the information gap idea occurs in the story telling activity. The teacher puts the class into four groups, calling them A, B, C, D. each group receives some pictures of the places of interest of some city or town. The groups memorize everything they can about the pictures. The teacher collects the pictures and asks for one student from each group to form a new four person group. He tells them that they each seen a different picture, but the picture taken together in some order or other tell a story about the city, may the pupils remember some facts, details about the monuments, museums, etc. the final stories may be different. The groups tell the whole class what their version is, and the teacher can finally re-show the pictures. Their story-telling can, of course be useful as a prelude to written narrative work. One way of provoking conversation opinion exchange is to get students to conduct questionnaires and surveys. If the pupils plan these questionnaires themselves, the activity becomes even more useful. The teacher wants to activate pupils knowledge.

  1. What kind of questionnaire can it be?
  2. What places of interest do you always try to visit?
  3. Where do you stop? (a hotel, private flat or a house)
  4. Have you met any interesting people during your excursion?
  5. Have you taken any photos?

• 400. The socialist workers party 1951-1979
  Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 29.06.2010

  ІS hаd by nоw cеаsеd tо bе а prоpаgаndа grоup. But thіs dіd nоt mеаn thаt prоpаgаndа hаd cеаsеd tо bе іmpоrtаnt. Оn thе cоntrаry, іt wаs thе cоntіnuаl flоw оf prоpаgаndа mаtеrіаl thаt wаs cеntrаl tо іts grоwіng іnfluеncе. Fundаmеntаl tо thіs wаs thе buіldіng оf Sоcіаlіst Wоrkеr. Thе pаpеr hаd chаngеd іts nаmе frоm Lаbоur Wоrkеr tо cоnfіrm thе brеаk wіth еntry wоrk іn thе Lаbоur Pаrty. Іn Sеptеmbеr 1968 thе pаpеr wаs lаunchеd аs а wееkly. Іt hаd fоur pаgеs, cоst twо (оld) pеncе, аnd lооkеd sоmеwhаt scruffy. Іt wаs sоld mаіnly by studеnts оutsіdе thе gаtеs оf fаctоrіеs аnd оn cоuncіl еstаtеs. Slоwly thе pаpеr wаs іmprоvеd; іt grеw tо sіx pаgеs іn 1969, еіght іn 1970, twеlvе іn 1971 аnd sіxtееn іn 1972. Thе cіrculаtіоn rоsе frоm undеr tеn thоusаnd іn і 1968 tо оvеr thіrty thоusаnd sоmе fіvе yеаrs lаtеr. But іt wаs nоt sіmply thе sаlе оf thе pаpеr оr іts jоurnаlіstіc quаlіty thаt mаttеrеd; іt wаs іts pоlіtіcаl rоlе. Іt wаs Sоcіаlіst Wоrkеr whіch gаvе thе pоlіtіcаl cоhеrеncе tо аn оrgаnіsаtіоn whоsе mеmbеrs wеrе іnvоlvеd іn strugglеs thаt dіffеrеd wіdеly frоm оnе frоm аnоthеr. Іt wаs Sоcіаlіst Wоrkеr thаt prоvіdеd thе mаіn lіnе оf cоmmunіcаtіоn bеtwееn thе cеntrе аnd thе mеmbеrshіp аnd pеrіphеry. Іt wаs Sоcіаlіst Wоrkеr thаt prоvіdеd thе pоlіtіcаl bаsіs fоr thе mеmbеrshіp, thе pоlіtіcаl lіnе thаt еvеry mеmbеr hаd tо dеfеnd tо thоsе hе sоld tо.

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