Иностранные языки

281. Return to materialism
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 26.06.2010

Slowly a myth developed within the Trotskyist movement that to this day still has some support. That myth is that what Lenin did was gather a cadre around a "correct" program, build a hard, centralized organization and when the masses radicalized they were won over. Having won the masses Lenin's party was then able to take "power". A whole series of corollaries followed from this erroneous concept and, over time, became part of the Trotskyist dogma. One example of these corollaries was the belief that without a party like Lenin's working people could not take power. Of course, a party "like Lenin's" meant a party with a "correct program" well centralized, with internally disciplined cadre. The Trotskyists argued that only the Fourth International (Trotskyist movement) had a correct program. Therefore in their eyes success for the workers' movement, long-term, was directly dependent on the growth of the Fourth International. Any other possible development was essentially ruled out. During the 1940s, for example, almost every article written in the International Socialist Rework, a monthly magazine of the North American followers of Trotsky, ended with the words "Only the Fourth International etc, etc."
282. Role of the interpreter in the modern world
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 13.09.2008

Another sphere where you cant spare without an interpreter is international political interaction between different countries of the world. All the international summit talks are held at obligatory participation of interpreters. In this case an interpreter is made responsible for carrying on negotiations effectively. And though he is only an intermediary between representatives of different countries his work plays decisive role in establishing of mutual understanding and friendly relationship between diplomats. Here I should say that an interpreter must transfer correctly not only sense of statements but also their emotional painting, style of speech and even tempo of speech of a speaker. But at the same time it is an interpreter who is able to smooth things over during diplomatic negotiations when its necessary. So I think that a professional interpreter can promote better understanding between countries and that makes this profession noble.
283. Roman Catholic labor movement in Grodno province (last third of XIX - beginning of 20 century.)
Информация пополнение в коллекции 15.10.2009

June 15, 1907 on their way to Roman Catholic procession in the street Kupecheskaya Grodno on the balcony of the house № 17 Calixto Avgusevicha in which the rule was "Christian Workers' Union, members of the society, and K. V. Sacro Avgusevichem initiated by the priest in. Bernice was arranged altar. However, according to the imperial order of January 29, 1904 and on 13 September 1907 of the Vilna governor-general of all that related to religious processions, without the prior permission of the provincial leadership suppressed: the perpetrators were fined 500 rubles, or arrest for up to three months. Grodno region governor, instead of directly punishing the guilty, did not approve the company's charter bakeries and bakery on shares in the "Christian Workers' Union" [3, pp.73]. In 1908, the society also forbade dancing nights and carry the Christmas tree, which made the main income of the organization: more than 300 rubles a year. Grodno governor also banned the company's charter to change [3, pp.73]. By 1911 is the last mention of the Union, has only 38 full members and 37 members sorevnovateley [3, pp.105]. Most likely, the existence of society gradually disappeared as a result of progressive restrictive actions by the civil authorities.
284. Rome and the Roman Empire
Информация пополнение в коллекции 26.08.2010
285. RP/BBC English or British English as a standard language
Контрольная работа пополнение в коллекции 02.04.2010

British English or UK English or English English (BrE, BE), is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere. There is confusion whether the term refers to English as spoken in the British Isles or to English as spoken in Great Britain, though in the case of Ireland, there are further distinctions peculiar to Hiberno-English. There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described as "British English". According to Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English (p. 45), "for many people...especially in England [the phrase British English] is tautologous," and it shares "all the ambiguities and tensions in the word British, and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity" [11]. English is a West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to England by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary. Professor Sally Johnson admits that dialects and accents vary between the four countries of the United Kingdom, and also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. There is no singular British accent, just as there is no singular American accent; in fact, the United Kingdom is home to a wide variety of regional accents and dialects, to a greater extent than the United States. Stuart Jeffries claims that the form of English most commonly associated with educated speakers in the southern counties of England is called the "Received Standard", and its accent is called Received Pronunciation (RP). It derives from a mixture of the Midland and Southern dialects which were spoken in London during the Middle Ages and is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. Although educated speakers from elsewhere within the UK may not speak with an RP accent it is now a class-dialect more than a local dialect. The best speakers of Standard English are those whose pronunciation, and language generally, least betray their locality. It may also be referred to as "the Queen's (or King's) English", "Public School English", or "BBC English" as this was originally the form of English used on radio and television, although a wider variety of accents can be heard these days. Only approximately two percent of Britons speak RP, and it has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years [11]. Even in the South East there are significantly different accents; the London Cockney accent is strikingly different from RP and its rhyming slang can be difficult for outsiders to understand. Since the mass immigration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and its close accent borders, it has become a source of various accent developments. There, nowadays, one finds an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a mixture of many different local accents, including East Midlands, East Anglian, Scottish, and Cockney. In addition, in the town of Corby, five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite, which unlike the Kettering accent, is largely based on Scottish. This is due to the influx of Scottish steelworkers. As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no equivalent body to the Académie française or the Real Academia Española, and the authoritative dictionaries (for example, Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Chambers Dictionary, Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent [11].
286. Russia and the international economy
Информация пополнение в коллекции 08.09.2010
287. Russia is my Motherland
Информация пополнение в коллекции 14.10.2008

Transport… Moscow is a very big city and its transport must be comfortable and fast. One can see a lot of cars, buses, trolleybuses and trams in the streets of our city. The Moscow metro began to work on the 15th of May, 1935. There were 13 stations at that time. Now it has 190 stations. Our metro is a beautiful and convenient one. There are nine railway stations in Moscow and four airports around the city.
288. Russian Identity
Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 27.05.2010
289. Russians and Mixed Martial Arts
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 08.07.2010
290. Scanning tunneling microscopy: a natural for electrochemistry
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.10.2006

The ideal tip for use in solutions would have its entire surface insulated except for the terminal atom of the tunneling probe. It is known that a voltage applied between any two electrodes in solution drives electrochemical process at the electrode surface and result in a current whose amplitude depends on the solution, the electrode surfaces, and the applied voltage. For a given set of these three parameters, the total current can be minimized by minimizing the uninsulated surface of the tip. In principle, only the last atom of the tip needs to be conductive for tunneling, the rest of the exposed tip only serves to increase the unwanted faradaic currents. Tip isolation can be done with glass and, furthermore, with SiO2. Still, islolation reduces the intrusiveness of the probe on the surfaces themselves, so the isolating layer should be as thin as possible.
291. School education in the USA
Информация пополнение в коллекции 24.11.2010

In some schools where the community is stable, the funding good, and the school environment orderly, a hardworking student can get an excellent education. But in other schools - especially those in poor neighborhoods in the nation's large cities - it is very difficult to become educated. The flight of middle-class families to the suburbs left big city public schools with mostly lower-income students. Many are deprived children from impoverished homes with only one parent. Many come to school ill-prepared and poorly motivated to learn. A large number need help in learning English. Many change residences and schools often, and a changing classroom population is difficult to teach. In some poor neighborhoods, the students do not attend school regularly because they are frightened by violent gangs. In some class-rooms, teachers have difficulty keeping the students' attention because disrespectful, uncooperative students disturb the class. Because the quality of education varies so much from one school district to another, parents who are planning to move to a new neighborhood often inquire about the schools - and even visit them - before deciding which community to move to.
292. Scottish Customs and Traditions
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.02.2012

The Great Highland Bagpipe (Scottish Gaelic <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_language>: a' phìob mhòr; often abbreviated GHB in English) is a type of bagpipe <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagpipe> native to Scotland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland>. It has achieved widespread recognition through its usage in the British military <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_military> and in pipe bands <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_band> throughout the world. It is closely related to the Great Irish Warpipes <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Irish_Warpipes>.bagpipe is first attested in Scotland around 1400 AD, having previously appeared in European artwork in Spain in the 13th century. The earliest references to bagpipes in Scotland are in a military context, and it is in that context that the Great Highland Bagpipe became established in the British military and achieved the widespread prominence it enjoys today, whereas other bagpipe traditions throughout Europe, ranging from Portugal to Russia, almost universally went into decline by the late 19th and early 20th centuries.widely famous for its role in military and civilian pipe bands, the Great Highland Bagpipe is also used for a solo virtuosic style called piobaireachd (aka pibroch <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pibroch>).popular belief sets varying dates for the introduction of bagpipes to Scotland, concrete evidence is limited until approximately the 15th century. The Clan Menzies <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan_Menzies> still owns a remnant of a set of bagpipes said to have been carried at the Battle of Bannockburn <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bannockburn> in 1314, though the veracity of this claim is debated. There are many ancient legends and stories about bagpipes which were passed down through minstrels and oral tradition, whose origins are now lost. However, textual evidence for Scottish bagpipes is more definite in 1396, when records of the Battle of the North Inch of Perth <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_North_Inch> reference "warpipes" being carried into battle. These references may be considered evidence as to the existence of particularly Scottish bagpipes, but evidence of a form peculiar to the Highlands appears in a poem written in 1598 (and later published in The Complaynt of Scotland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Complaynt_of_Scotland> which refers to several types of pipe, including the Highland: "On hieland pipes, Scotte and Hybernicke / Let heir be shraichs of deadlie clarions." 1746, after the forces loyal to the Hanoverian government <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Hanover> had defeated the Jacobites <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobitism> in the Battle of Culloden <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Culloden>, King George II <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_II_of_Great_Britain> attempted to assimilate the Highlands <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlands> into Great Britain by weakening Gaelic culture <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaels> and the Scottish clan <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_clan> system, though claims that the Act of Proscription 1746 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Proscription_1746> banned the Highland bagpipes are not substantiated by the text itself. It was soon realised that Highlanders made excellent troops and a number of regiments were raised from the Highlands over the second half of the eighteenth century. Although the early history of pipers within these regiments is not well documented, there is evidence that these regiments had pipers at an early stage and there are numerous accounts of pipers playing into battle during the 19th century, practice which continued into World War I <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I> when it was abandoned due to the high casualty rate (though sporadic incidents of pipers playing into battle have occurred regularly since).Great Highland Bagpipe is classified as a woodwind instrument <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodwind_instrument>, like the bassoon <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bassoon>, oboe <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboe>, or clarinet <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarinet>. Although it is classified as a double reed <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_reed> instrument, the reeds are all closed inside the wooden stocks, instead of being played directly by mouth as other woodwinds are. The GHB actually has four reeds; the chanter reed (double), two tenor drone reeds (single), and one bass drone reed (single).modern set has a bag, a chanter, a blowpipe, two tenor drones, and one bass drone. The scale on the chanter is in Mixolydian mode <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixolydian_mode>, which has a flattened 7th or leading tone. It has a range from one whole tone <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole_tone> lower than the tonic to one octave above it (in piper's parlance: Low G, Low A, B, C#, D, E, F#, High G, and High A; the C and F could or should be called sharp <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharp_%28music%29> but this is often omitted).* Yet the notes played are actually in the key of B?. Although less so now, depending on the tuning of the player, certain notes are tuned slightly off just intonation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Just_intonation>, for example, the D could be tuned slightly sharp for effect. However, today the notes of the chanter are usually tuned in just intonation to the Mixolydian scale. The two tenor drones are an octave <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octave> below the keynote <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keynote> (Low A) of the chanter) and the bass drone two octaves below.developments have included reliable synthetic drone reeds, and synthetic bags that deal with moisture arguably better than hide bags.pipes were originally constructed of locally-available woods such as holly <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holly>, laburnum <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laburnum>, and boxwood <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxwood>. Later, as expanding colonisation and trade expanded access to more exotic woods, tropical hardwoods such as cocuswood <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cocuswood> (the Caribbean), ebony <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebony> (West African and South and Southeast Asia) and African blackwood <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_blackwood> (Subsaharran Africa) became the standards in the late 18th and 19th centuries. In the modern day, synthetic materials, particularly Polypenco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypenco>, have become quite popular, particularly in pipe bands where uniformity of chanters is desirable.Gaelic word pìobaireachd simply means "pipe music", but it has been adapted into English as piobaireachd <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piobaireachd> or pibroch. In Gaelic, this, the "great music" of the GHB is referred to as ceòl mòr, and "light music" (such as marches and dance tunes) is referred to as ceòl beag.òl mòr consists of a slow "ground" movement (Gaelic ùrlar) which is a simple theme, then a series of increasingly complex variations on this theme, and ends with a return to the ground. Ceòl Beag includes marches (2/4, 4/4, 6/8, 3/4, etc), dance tunes (particularly strathspeys, reels, hornpipes, and jigs), slow airs, and more. The ceòl mòr style was developed by the well-patronized dynasties of bagpipers - MacArthurs, MacGregors <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MacGregors&action=edit&redlink=1>, Rankins, and especially the MacCrimmons <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacCrimmon_%28piping_family%29> - and seems to have emerged as a distinct form during the 17th century.to many other musical instruments, the GHB is limited by its range (nine notes), lack of dynamics, and the enforced legato <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legato> style, due to the continuous airflow from the bag. The GHB is a closed reed instrument, which means that the four reeds are completely encased within the instrument and the player cannot change the sound of the instrument via mouth position or tonguing. As a result, notes cannot be separated by simply stopping blowing or tonguing so gracenotes and combinations of gracenotes, called embellishments, are used for this purpose. These more complicated ornaments using two or more gracenotes include doublings, taorluaths, throws, grips, birls. There are also a set of ornaments usually used for pìobaireachd, for example the dare, vedare, chedare, darado, taorluath and crunluath. Some of these embellishments have found their way into light music over the course of the 20th century. These embellishments are also used for note emphasis, for example to emphasize the beat note or other phrasing <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_phrasing> patterns. These three single gracenotes (G, D, and E) are the most commonly used and are often played in succession. All gracenotes are performed rapidly, by quick finger movements, giving an effect similar to tonguing <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonguing> or articulation on modern wind instruments. Due to the lack of rests and dynamics, all expression in GHB music comes from the use of embellishments and to a larger degree by varying the duration of notes. Despite the fact that most GHB music is highly rhythmically regimented and structured, proper phrasing of all types of GHB music relies heavily on rubato, the ability of the player to stretch specific notes within a phrase or measure. In particular, the main beats and off-beats of each phrase are structured, however, sub-divisions within each beat are flexible.
293. Seasons
Статья пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008
SEASONS
1. Everybody knows that there are four seasons in a year and every season is good on its own way with its own charm.
2. Consider autumn for example.
3. In September and November it is still warm and the sun shines brightly in the blue cloudless sky.
4. But November brings cool winds, nasty and gloomy days.
5. And how nasty cold autumn rain is! Sometimes it rains for hours!
6. Nature is falling slowly asleep.
7. But there are people who like autumn, they say, it is the time of harvest, golden leaves, its the time when the nature is very attractive.
8. Poets of all nations have sung autumn as the most beautiful time of the year.
9. “Golden autumn,” they call it. Golden, indeed. Yet autumn does not appeal to me very much.
294. Secrets of 3D computer graphics
Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 01.10.2010

In the example below, you see an animated sequence showing a walk through the new How Stuff Works office. First, notice that this sequence is much simpler than most scenes in a 3D game. There are no opponents jumping out from behind desks, no missiles or spears sailing through the air, no tooth-gnashing demons materializing in cubicles. From the "what's-going-to-be-in-the-scene" point of work, this is simple animation. Even this simple sequence, though, deals with many of the issues we've seen so far. The walls and furniture have texture that covers wireframe structures. Rays representing lighting provide the basis for shadows. Also, as the point of work changes during the walk through the office, notice how some objects become visible around corners and appear from behind walls -- you're seeing the effects of the z-buffer calculations. As all of these elements come into play before the image can actually be rendered onto the monitor, it's pretty obvious that even a powerful modern CPU can use some help doing all the processing required for 3D games and graphics. That's where graphics co-processor boards come in.
295. Sellers and buyers in Russia and in foreign countries
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.09.2010

For long use goods (service), the manufacturer (executor) has the right to establish service life the period during which the manufacturer (executor) undertakes to provide to the consumer the opportunity to use of goods and to bear the responsibility for essential lacks. On food stuffs, the perfumer cosmetic goods, medicines, the goods of household, chemical goods and other similar goods the manufacturer (executor) is obliged to establish working life the period after which the goods are considered unsuitable for use. Sale of the goods after a target date of the validity, and also the goods on which working life should be established, but it is not established is forbidden. The manufacturer (executor) has the right to establish a warranty period the period during which in case of detection of lack of the goods the manufacturer (executor), the seller, is obliged to satisfy requirements of the consumer. The seller has the right to establish a warranty period if it is not established by the manufacturer. The manufacturer (executor) is obliged to provide safety of the goods during working life of the goods. The seller (manufacturer) is obliged to accept the goods of inadequate quality from the consumer and in case of the need to inspect the quality of the goods. The consumer has the right to participate in the check of the quality of the goods. If term of elimination of lacks of the goods is not determined in writing by the agreement of the sides, these lacks should be eliminated by the manufacturer (seller) immediately. If the consumer has found out lacks of the goods the seller is obliged him to replace within 7 days. If the seller (manufacturer) at the moment of presentation of the requirement does not have goods necessary for replacement, replacement should be carried out within a month from the date of presentation of such requirement. The goods which be replaced should new. The warranty period, in this case, is estimated anew, from the date of replacement. For infringement of terms of an exchange, the seller pays to the consumer the penalty per every day of delay.
296. Semantic peculiarities of the English article and ways of its translation
Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 14.11.2011

A mere semantic observation of the articles in English, i.e. the definite article the and the indefinite article a/an, at once discloses not two but three meaningful characterizations of the nounal referent achieved by their correlative functioning, namely: one rendered by the definite article, one rendered by the indefinite article, and one rendered by the absence (or non-use) of the article. Let us examine them separately.definite article expresses the identification or individualization of the referent of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality. This meaning can be brought to explicit exposition by a substitution test. The test consists in replacing the article used in a construction by a demonstrative word, e.g. a demonstrative determiner, without causing a principal change in the general implication of the construction. Of course, such an "equivalent" substitution should be understood in fact as nothing else but analogy: the difference in meaning between a determiner and an article admits of no argument, and we pointed it out in the above passages. Still, the replacements of words as a special diagnostic procedure, which is applied with the necessary reservations and according to a planned scheme of research, is quite permissible. In our case it undoubtedly shows a direct relationship in the meanings of the determiner and the article, the relationship in which the determiner is semantically the more explicit element of the two. Cf.:look at the apple-tree! - But look at this apple-tree! The town lay still in the Indian summer sun. - That town lay still in the Indian summer sun. The water is horribly hot. - This water is horribly hot. It's the girls who are to blame. - It's those girls who are to blame.justification of the applied substitution, as well as its explanatory character, may be proved by a counter-test, namely, by the change of the definite article into the indefinite article, or by omitting the article altogether [50, c.181] The replacement either produces a radical, i.e. "non-equivalent" shift in the meaning of the construction, or else results in a grammatically unacceptable construction. Cf.: ... - Look at an apple-tree! - Look at apple-tree! ... - A water is horribly hot. - Water is horribly hot.indefinite article, as different from the definite article, is commonly interpreted as referring the object denoted by the noun to a certain class of similar objects; in other words, the indefinite article expresses a classifying generalization of the nounal referent, or takes it in a relatively general sense. To prove its relatively generalizing functional meaning, we may use the diagnostic insertions of specifying-classifying phrases into the construction in question; we may also employ the transformation of implicit comparative constructions with the indefinite article into the corresponding explicit coparative constructions. Cf.:passed a water-mill. - We passed a certain water-mill. It is a very young country, isn't it? - It is a very young kind of country, isn't it? What an arrangement! - What sort of arrangement! This child is a positive nightmare. - This child is positively like a nightmare.procedure of a classifying contrast employed in practical textbooks exposes the generalizing nature of the indefinite article most clearly in many eases of its use. E.g.:door opened in the wall. - A door (not a window) opened in the wall. We saw a flower under the bush. - We saw a flower (not a strawberry) under the bush.for the various uses of nouns without an article, from the semantic point of work they all should be divided into two types. In the first place, there are uses where the articles are deliberately omitted out of stylistical considerations. We see such uses, for instance, in telegraphic speech, in titles and headlines, in various notices. E.g.:received room reserved for week-end. (The text of a telegram.) Conference adjourned until further notice. (The text of an announcement.) Big red bus rushes food to strikers. (The title of a newspaper article.)purposeful elliptical omission of the article in cases like that is quite obvious, and the omitted articles may easily be restored in the constructions in the simplest "back-directed" refilling procedures.. - The telegram is received, a room is reserved for the weekend. ... - The conference is adjourned until further notice. ... - A big red bus rushes food to the strikers.free elliptical constructions, there are cases of the semantically unspecified non-use of the article in various combinations of fixed type, such as prepositional- phrases (on fire, at hand, in debt, etc.), fixed verbal collocations (take place, make use, cast anchor, etc.), descriptive coordinative groups and repetition groups (man and wife, dog and gun, day by day, etc.), and the like. These cases of traditionally fixed absence of the article are quite similar to the cases of traditionally fixed uses of both indefinite and definite articles (cf.: in a hurry, at a loss, have a look, give a start, etc.; In the main, out of the question, on the look-out, etc.).the elliptical constructions and fixed uses, however, we know a really semantic absence of the article with the noun. It is this semantic absence of the article that stands in immediate meaningful correlation with the definite and indefinite articles as such.is widely acknowledged, the meaningful non-uses of the article are not homogeneous; nevertheless, they admit of a very explicit classification founded on the countability characteristics of the noun. Why countability characteristics? For the two reasons. The first reason is inherent in the nature of the noun itself: the abstract generalization reflected through the meaningful non-use of the article is connected with the suppression of the idea of the number in the noun. The second reason is inherent in the nature of the article: the indefinite article which plays the crucial role in the semantic correlation in question reveals the meaning of oneness within its semantic base, having originated from the indefinite pronoun one, and that is why the abstract use of the noun naturally goes with the absence of the article.essential points of the said classification are three in number.. The meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the meaning of "absolute generalization", can be demonstrated by inserting in the tested construction a chosen generalizing modifier (such as in general, in the abstract, in the broadest sense). Cf.:(in general) begins with the beginning of human society. Steam-engine (in general) introduced for locomotion a couple of centuries ago has now become obsolete.. The absence of the article before the uncountable noun corresponds to the two kinds of generalization: both relative and absolute. To decide which of the two meanings is realized in any particular case, the described tests should be carried out alternately. Cf.:laughed with great bitterness (that sort of bitterness - relative generalization). The subject of health (in general - absolute generalization) was carefully avoided by everybody. Coffee (a kind of beverage served at the table - relative generalization) or tea, please? Coffee (in general - absolute generalization) stimulates the function of the heart.. The absence of the article before the countable noun in the plural, likewise, corresponds to both kinds of generalization, and the exposition of the meaning in each case can be achieved by the same semantic tests. Cf.:, planets and comets (these kinds of objects: relative generalization) are different celestial bodies (not terrestrial bodies: relative generalization). Wars (in general: absolute generalization) should be eliminated as means of deciding international disputes.distinguish the demonstrated semantic functions of the non-uses of the article by definition, we may say that the absence of the article with uncountable nouns, as well as with countable nouns in the plural, renders the meaning of "uncharacterized generalization", as different from the meaning of "absolute generalization", achieved by the absence of the article with countable nouns in the singular.much for the semantic evaluation of the articles as the first stage of our study.to the situational assessment of the article uses, we must point out that the basic principle of their differentiation here is not a direct consideration of their meanings, but disclosing the informational characteristics that the article conveys to its noun in concrete contextual conditions. Examined from this angle, the definite article serves as an indicator of the type of nounal information "which is presented as the "facts already known", i.e. as the starting point of the communication. In contrast to this, the indefinite article or the meaningful absence of the article introduces the central communicative nounal part of the sentence, i.e. the part rendering the immediate informative data to be conveyed from the speaker to the listener. In the situational study of syntax the starting point of the communication is called its "theme", while the central informative part is called its "rheme".
297. Sexual violence and capitalism
Информация пополнение в коллекции 21.06.2010

Increases in reported sexual assault do not necessarily reflect a rise in violence. It may, as Grabosky pointed out, reflect changes in police practices, changes in social attitudes which mean more women feel able to report the attack, or even the fact that the legal definition of rape has changed. There are several reasons for the shift in emphasis which intersect and reinforce each other. Firstly, the continuing increase in the number of women working raises expectations of what relationships should offer. Women who feel relatively independent are likely to be more self-confident, more able to get out of a relationship, so they are not prepared to accept the same level of abuse as previously. There is quite a lot of evidence to suggest most women do not passively accept their situation (contrary to the efforts of many academic sociologists to establish otherwise). Eighty per cent of women contacted by the Queensland Task Force attempted to leave at some time. American studies back up this figure with one finding that seventy-five per cent of abused women left the violent family situation. Even a study of adolescent women, who could be expected to have the least self-confidence, found that a majority were able to stop the attack and avoid rape. Where the assault was perpetrated by a date or boyfriend, two thirds of the relationships changed and 87 per cent ended. Womens ability to assert their own interests was improved from the mid-seventies when divorce laws began to be reformed and later, when rape in marriage acknowledged abusive behaviour as criminal. The provision of welfare, insufficient as it is, can make the difference between staying or leaving an intolerable situation. Many studies quote women as giving more ideological reasons, such as commitment to the family, feelings of guilt or even believing they were to blame, for staying in a marriage they hated. This should not blind us to the way economic circumstances constrain the options open to an individual, thereby limiting their work of their position. Economic and ideological factors feed each other. Once the material circumstances change, there is a space for new ideas to take root and influence a persons actions.
298. Significance of translation in contemporary life
Доклад пополнение в коллекции 02.12.2010
1. Ilko, V. Korunets. 2003. Theory and practice of translation. Vinnutza: Nova Knyha, pp.13-15.
2. Bassnett, S. 1991. Translation studies. London: Routledge.
3. Lotman, J., Uspensky, B. 1978. “On the semiotic mechanism of culture”, New Literary History, pp. 211-232.
4. Nida, E. 1964. “Plinciples of Correspondence”. In Veniti, L. The translation studies reader. London: Routledge.
5. Guennadi, E. Miram, Velentina, V. Daineko, Lyubov, A. Taranukha, Maryna, V. Gryschenko, Oleksandr, M. Gon. 2003. Basic translation (основи перекладу). Kyiv: Elga Nika-Center.
6. http://www.articlesnatch.com/Article/Importance-Of-Translation/224095
7. http://ezinearticles.com/?Importance-Of-Translation-And-Interpreter-Services-On-Business-Trips&id=1174850
8. www.wallstreetstocks.net/the-importance-of-translation-services-to-different-fields-of-industry
9. http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=John_T._Smith
10. http://textronics.com/translationtheimportanceofculture.html
11. http://www.translation-services-usa.com/blog/2009/08/the-importance-of-translation/
12. http://www.articlesbase.com/business-articles/the-importance-of-translation-services-1830749.html
13. http://www.thelanguagetranslation.com/services-industry.html
299. Slang
Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 22.01.2008

The traditional breeding grounds of slang have always been secretive, often disenfranchised social groups and closed institutions with their rituals and codes. This has not changed, although the users in question have. Where once it was the armed forces, the public schools and Oxbridge that in Britain dominated socially and linguistically, now it is the media, the comprehensive playground and the new universities which exercise most influence on popular language: the office, the trading-floor and the computer-room have replaced the workshop, the factory and the street-market as nurturing environments for slang. The street gang and the prison, whence came nearly all the cant that filled the early glossaries, still provide a great volume of slang, as do the subcultures of rave, techno and jungle music, crusties and new agers, skaters and snowboarders. Football metaphors and in-jokes have long since ousted the cricketing imagery of yesteryear. Some special types of slang including pig-latin (infixing)and backslang (reversal, as in yob )seem virtually to have disappeared in the last few years, while the rhyming slang which arose in the early Victorian age continues to flourish in Britain and Australia, replenished by succeeding generations, and the even older parlyaree (a romance/romany/yiddish lingua franca) lingers on in corners of Londons theatre-land and gay community. The effect of the media and more recently of the Internet means that slang in English can no longer be seen as a set of discrete localised dialects, but as a continuum or a bundle of overlapping vocabularies stretching from North America and the Caribbean through Ireland and the UK on to South Africa, South and East Asia and Australasia. Each of these communities has its own peculiarities of speech, but instantaneous communications and the effect of English language movies, TV soaps and music means that there is a core of slang that is common to all of them and into which they can feed. The feeding in still comes mainly from the US, and to a lesser extent Britain and Australia; slang from other areas and the slang of minorities in the larger communities has yet to make much impression on global English, with one significant exception. That is the black slang which buzzes between Brooklyn, Trenchtown, Brixton and Soweto before, in many cases, crossing over to pervade the language of the underworld, teenagers ( - it is the single largest source for current adolescent slang in both the UK and US), the music industry and showbusiness. Within one country previously obscure local slang can become nationally known, whether spread by the bush telegraph that has always linked schools and colleges or by the media: Brookside, Coronation Street, Rab C. Nesbitt and Viz magazine have all helped in disseminating British regionalisms. This mixing-up of national and local means that past assumptions about usage may no longer hold true: the earnest English traveller, having learned that fag and bum mean something else in North America, now finds that in fashionable US campus-speak they can actually mean cigarette and backside. In the meantime the alert American in Britain learns that cigarettes have become tabs or biffs and backside is now often rendered by the Jamaican batty .
300. Smoking
Статья пополнение в коллекции 22.08.2006

According to the World Health Organization, it is most common in east Asia, where as many as two-thirds of all adult males smoke tobacco. Because of concern over the health effects of tobacco smoking, the practice has rapidly declined in recent years in the United States, Canada and western Europe. However, statistics show that at least a quarter of people even in these regions continue to smoke, and there is no indication smoking will go away completely.

Blog

Иностранные языки