Иностранные языки

321. Tastes differ
Статья пополнение в коллекции 25.08.2006

Tastes differ even among people belonging to different sex. Recently American medical journal Psychology and Behaviour published the results of a very interesting research. They used the Web to survey 277 male and female participants in order to find out what kind of food they prefer. They found that women are more prone to eat comfort foods high in fat and sugar, such as cakes and ice-cream. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to turn to soups, pasta and steaks.
322. Teaching business communication skills
Информация пополнение в коллекции 21.03.2012
323. Teaching English speaking at the beginning stage
Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 22.12.2011

in these «higher» levels of language will be attained only if the child has opportunity to hear and use language in situations where these competences (pic. 4) are authentically required.as with the mother tongue, a foreign language is acquired through a developmental process that focuses first on language use through meaningful communicative activities, combined with steps along the way that sometimes involve focus on language form with conscious self-editing and refinement of the rules of the language.is needed is a consciousness-raising of the rules, a focus on the components of the utterance so that the child can more control of their speech. This is not to advocate a return to dry grammar/parsing lessons. It is, rather, helping the child monitor the correctness and/or appropriateness of their utterances, helping them focus on accuracy as well as fluency, on social, discourse and pragmatic features of language use. But this seems far away perhaps from the initial stages of developing speaking in the foreign language. How do we start? By considering the functions of communication through a range of stress-free and fun activities and by moving on to structured opportunities for the child to explore and enjoy this new language.is infinite range of activities - the context, which the teacher, or the teacher and pupils jointly set up, will determine the activity - which will encourage learners to engage emotionally and physically in the language learning process and which will develop techniques to build up a powerful visual and auditory memory and will make them fell able to risk making mistakes. Language is associated with sound, music, movement, colour, drama and thereby impregnated with meaning. There are memory games, songs, rhymes, poems, stories which they will hear and want to adapt, make their own. There will be opportunities for dramatization which will exploit the child's sense of theatre and appreciation of audience, their awareness of register.the context of foreign language learning the class teacher can do mach to promote the above, in simple ways which are consonant with the ways the child will be learning in other areas of the primary curriculum. For example, if we consider length of utterance, the introduction of connectors (and, but, which) and modifiers (rather, enough) can be introduced at an early stage in the process during the daily routine slot where the children are talking about the weather. For example:weather is fine today.weather is fine, but it is rather cold.only does the child have the satisfaction of hearing themselves say «more», but they can also be encouraged to reflect on the change in the intonation pattern occasioned by the introduction of the connectors and modifiers. A pattern can then be established in the child's mind. Equally, there is an expectation set up in their mind that they should be willing to expand on utterances, giving opinions, agreeing, disagreeing - all features of natural conversation in the mother tongue. (3)need also to engage the child's activity in the foreign language within the parameters of their current competence but always with an eye to expecting more and celebrating more. Where breakdowns in communication occur, as they will inevitably, then the sensitive teacher allows the child to revert to the mother tongue and will translate for the child, thereby setting up a paradigm of foreign language learning which is again consonant with the ways in which the primary class teacher operates in other areas of the curriculum - namely, providing «knowledge» on a need-to know basis, personalizing the input according to the interests, needs and learning styles of each child. There is an example that is given in practical part, showing how an activity can (a) be connected to an area of the primary curriculum (Maths); (b) allow the children to move gradually from stress-free listening structured speaking to more open-ended speaking; and (c) encourage the children to develop learning strategies. Its named Shapes.
324. Teaching of English as an international language
Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 10.06.2012

While demographic statistics provide the evidence for redefining English as an International language, broad demographic surveys do not provide clear information about competence. The status of English as a "Language of International Communication" is no longer in dispute and rarely attracts the kind of critical scrutiny that an emerging field of inquiry requires. Important conceptualizations such as Kachru's (1985) three concentric circles, ('inner', where English is used as a first language, 'outer', where it is used as a second official language and 'expanding', where it is still classified as a foreign language) also require further scrutiny in relation to competence. Modiano (1999), for example, importantly suggests that Kachru's circles appear to predetermine competence according to nationality and argues that competence should be determined independently of origin. The key factor is the increase of the relative use of English across non-native settings compared to its use within native settings or between native and non-native settings.(1997, p.22) points out that "the speed with which a global language scenario has arisen is truly remarkable". The so-called "expanding circle" of foreign language speakers was said to include more than 750 million EFL speakers in 1997, compared to 375 million first-language speakers and 375 million second language speakers. A critical point of no return has been reached in that the number of English users is developing at a faster rate as a language of international communication than as a language of intra-national communication. The extent to which intra-cultural use has been surpassed by intercultural use is difficult to estimate exactly (See Crystal, 2004, pp.7-10, 1997, pp.53-63 and Graddol, 1999, pp.58-68) on the methods and difficulties of interpreting global statistics. A more recent IATEFL publication even suggests that communication between non-native speakers now represents 80% of global English use. (Finster, in Pulverness 2004, p.9).Crystal (1997) and Graddol (1999) have often been cited on the global dimensions of English, both insist that available statistics represent no more than estimates and that figures alone do not provide a full or clear picture. Melchers and Shaw (2003, pp.8-9) point out that "the EFL category is particularly difficult to pinpoint: it really depends on what level of proficiency a person should have to qualify as a speaker of English".is nonetheless important to have some picture of the dimensions in terms of quantity.U.S. Bureau of the Census, International Data Base http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/idbnew.html estimated the world population at around six billion. (5,844, 270,952 in 1997, to match Crystal's English language estimates, 6,445,576,554 in the year 2005.) They estimate growth to around nine billion by the year 2050. Crystal (1997, p. 60) estimates that "well over a third" of the world population (2,025 million in 1997) were "routinely exposed to English". Crystal warns that "only a proportion of these people actually have some command of English." Identifying only two broad categories, "native or native-like command" and "reasonable competence", he advises caution in estimating 'competence'.we are cautious by temperament, we will add these statistics together by choosing the lowest estimates in each category: in this way we shall end up with a grand total of 670 million people with a native or native-like command of English. If we go to the opposite extreme, and use a criterion of 'reasonable competence' rather than 'native-like fluency', we shall end up with a grand total of 1,800 million. A 'middle-of-the-road' estimate would be 1,200 - 1,500 million …" (Crystal 1997, p. 61)'middle-of-the road' estimate, means that about 20-25% of the world's population possess 'reasonable competence'. However, 'competence' here is only a vague, sub-theoretical construct with no clear definition. Crystal, for example, assumes "a reasonable level of attainment" (1997, p.55) in countries where English has official status and where it is taught in schools, for all those who have completed secondary or further education and are over the age of 25. Crystal's more recent publications do not radically change these figures. Crystal (2003, p.9) for example, estimates that about a quarter of the world's population (1,400 million, including "600 million or so who use it as a foreign language") have at least 'reasonable' competence in conversation, adding that "no other language is used so extensively - either numerically, or with such geographical reach".outcome of both Crystal and Graddol's discussions is that Kachru's three-way classification of inner circle, outer circle and expanding circle countries can only be a starting point in considerations of competence. Although linguists tend to favour acceptance of the notion of competence in relation to varieties of English, of world "Englishes" that extend far beyond an 'inner circle', competence cannot easily be related to linguistic demographics. Within the "outer" circle, there are a wide variety of situations, in which competence is difficult to estimate. Even the amount of English used within multilingual settings is difficult to pin down. In India, for example, a Malayalem speaker from the south may not speak the official Hindi tongue so may use English as a lingua franca with speakers of one of the other sixteen Indian languages. A colonial past may provide hostility towards the language of the former colonialists, but pragmatism often prevails, with English being the most useful tool as a kind of lingua franca (see Gupta, 2005). There are huge variations in the role of English and the number of competent speakers between the fifty or so countries that are classified for convenience in this category.significant for this discussion is the third group of the so-called "expanding circle" of countries, in which English is a foreign language, but with a difference. In many such countries, it is unrealistic to consider that international communication can be conducted only in the national language. Some of these countries have come to accept just one foreign language, English, as the most convenient means of international communication. Crystal (1997, p. 56) points out that Kachru's three concentric circles, while representing a breakthrough in our conception of global English use, can mask some important realities if the notion of competence is invoked. Northern European countries, such as the Netherlands and Scandinavian countries are classified as expanding circle countries. "There is much more use of English nowadays in some countries of the expanding circle, where it is 'only' a foreign language …, than in some of the countries where it has traditionally held a special place". Nunan (in Robertson et. al. 2005, p. 8) suggests that in an Asian context too, it makes more sense to refer simply to "learning English" than to EFL or ESL.(1997, p.55) was careful to point out the dangers of "hidden assumptions" and underlines the difficulty of drawing firm conclusions from the diverse statistical estimates available. How do compilers of linguistic demographics consider the notion of "competence"? For outer circle countries where English has an official status, we have noted that Crystal considers that those who have completed secondary education will have "a reasonable level of attainment". While useful as a starting point for global estimates, it is still necessary to underline the fact that competence is not rigorously defined in estimates of global English use. Crystal repeatedly affirms (see for example p. 61) the difficulty of acquiring accurate estimates. Careful use of modality is of the essence: "Even a small percentage increase in the number of speakers thought to have a reasonable (rather than a fluent) command of English would considerably expand the L2 grand total. A figure of 350 million is in fact widely cited as a likely total for this category". As Crystal (1997, p.5) points out, "why a language becomes a global language has little to do with the number of people who speak it. It is much more to do with who those speakers are." If all English speakers were located on one continent or in only one geographical area for example, this would reduce the importance of the figures. Only French and English are spoken as native languages on five continents.stated above, the main factor in according a 'global' status to English is also highly significant for the notion of competence. This is the fact that non-native use of English appears to be rivalling if not overtaking native use in terms of quantity. Again the statistical evidence needs to be considered with caution. It is not possible to estimate accurately the quantity of English spoken by any particular group of speakers or between any particular groups. Another factor not taken into account is the proportion of non-native English that speakers are routinely exposed to in terms of listening and reading. Here we must consider films, television, books, newspapers and other media sources.is made of the number of non-natives using English surpassing the number of native users, but this masks another reality which is rarely expressed because, while it could be seen as a professional duty to expose local realities as a basis for meaningful curriculum development, it is not considered politically correct to do so. Many nationals of many expanding circle countries still do not possess competence or confidence to communicate in English and are unlikely ever to do so. For the majority, global communication is a potential that is never realized.is little that can be done to confront global estimates critically without resorting to anecdotal local experience. However inadequate anecdotal or incomplete local experiential 'evidence' might be, it does help put global figures in perspective. While 'completing high school' is not a criterion for even basic estimates of competence in expanding circle countries, we might expect that a large proportion of those high school students who gain acceptance to university would all have "reasonable" competence in economically developed countries such as Japan. However, a placement test at the author's own university given to all new entrants to assess their ability to take part in a basic conversation (see Baker's (2000, p.78) category of BICS, cited above) indicates that around 30% of such students can demonstrate no ability to participate in a simple small-group conversation on everyday topics and only around 25% possess usable competence at lower intermediate level or above.wider scale investigation is needed and we can in no way generalize such findings to the population of the world's expanding circle countries, it is hard to imagine that the figures are unique to one situation to the extent that all other Japanese high school graduates possess basic communication ability in English.implications of English as an International Language are extremely varied and have only just started to be seriously considered un-polemically. The emerging reality is that English 'no longer belongs to its natives'. It is not so much that natives are suddenly being dispossessed, but more that non-natives are increasingly becoming 'possessed'. (See Phan Le Han, 2005 for a fuller discussion.) No language per se belongs exclusively to anyone unless political restrictions are imposed on who may use it. A language is part of the identity of anyone who is able to use it and competence also reflects the degree to which we "possess" a language. It still belongs in an essential way to its natives and they belong to it, to the extent that it is their main and inescapable means of communication and a deep and basic part of their cultural identity. However, as Graddol (1999, p. 68) emphasizes, "native" use of English is declining statistically and norms of use can no longer be codified as independent mono-cultural or mono-linguistic units.diversity inevitably leads towards a consideration of what constitutes a teachable standard. McArthur (in an interwork reported in Graddol et al., 1999, p.4) underlines the dilemma stating, "we all use it in different ways; we all approximate to something which isn't there, but which we idealise about, negotiate and compromise." McArthur (pp. 4-5) identifies East Asia as an example of an area where "the entire middle class seems to want English for their children as an international vehicle which they can use with the rest of the world - it's not a British or an American thing." Crystal (p.137) puts forward the notion of a "World Standard Spoken English (WSSE)" which is still so much in "its infancy", conceding that it is impossible to predict how or even if a standard will develop or whether fragmentation will become the norm. McArthur suggests that a move towards "hybridisation" represents a normal process of world languages. For McArthur hybridisation is "infinitely varied" but "the idea of hybrids is stable" in the sense that it is a normal and verifiable phenomenon.(p.8) implies that native norms may still dominate but they will also internationalize and blend with the varieties of new Englishes. Crystal argues (p.130) that no "regional social movement, such as the purist societies which try to prevent language change or restore a past period of imagined linguistic excellence, can influence the global outcome." Crystal (p. 137) suggests that competence needs to be considered on different levels. Local varieties "full of casual pronunciation, colloquial grammar and local turn of phrase", which are opposed to formal varieties for wider intelligibility, "full of careful pronunciation, conventional grammar, and standard vocabulary". He refers (p. 135) to a continuing presence of standard written English, in the form of newspapers, textbooks, and other printed materials," suggesting that these show "very little variation in the different English-speaking countries".avoid polemics between native and non-native perspectives, Melchers and Shaw (2003, p.39) suggest that we need to consider a user's "scope of proficiency" as an alternative to inclusive or exclusive notions such as "native" or "non-native". (See also Modiano, 1999.) They distinguish four levels. Internationally Effective Able to use communication strategies and a linguistic variety that is comprehensible to interlocutors from a wide range of national and cultural backgroundseffectiveWhat a South African would need to communicate with other South AfricansProficiencyThe proficiency someone needs to deal with people in his or her arealevel of the language learner who knows some English but cannot communicate in itcategories are an invaluable first step in that they allow a speaker of any background access to the highest level. However, they would need considerable refining to be made operational for teachers interested in assessing competence.
325. Teaching speaking through discussion
Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 11.02.2011

The difficulties in understanding and following the writers thoughts which are not connected in a cohesive piece of writing may be caused by plagiarizing. While it is always good to use quotes to show that you have read widely, you should make sure that the essay is written in your own words, otherwise you may be accused of cheating. Students are aware of the many Internet sites offering essays. What they may not realize is that teachers are aware of them. Tutors are usually very familiar with the difference between the way students write and the way experienced authors write, and soon notice when a student lurches between an expert and a beginner style. The advice is simple: write your own essay. Do not even waste your time reading other peoples essays looking for ideas. It is one thing to read to understand the process, and another to take these ideas and words as your own. This approach will not get you good marks. Indeed, when tutors reveal this they will tend to assume you understand very little and you will get lower mark. Worse, you do not develop your own writing style. If you persist in parroting other people's words rather than expressing your own thoughts, then you are likely to remain a beginner for a long time. And you will not learn much about the ideas in the course either. It is difficult to elaborate various ideas, to present the topic from different perspectives. That is the reason why some students are tempted to lift sections of words from textbooks and articles and put them in their essays without using quotation marks or acknowledging the source. When you are quoting draw upon a wide variety of sources to ensure that you have examined the issue from multiple perspectives. There are three main ways to integrate quotations into your essay: (1) direct quotation, (2) paraphrase, and (3) mixed quotation. Direct quotation involves quoting word for word one or more sentences from an author or source. When you quote, be sure to introduce your quotation with a signal phrase. It is another issue to consider. Signal phrase is a clause before the quotation that identifies the author (e. g., "Jones says," or "According to Jones. "). It is essential to create a bridge between your own voice and that of another you are incorporating into your essay. Avoid putting the article title in the signal phrase. It is better to include paper itself or the author. Suppose you are using a quotation that appears inside an article written by someone other than the one saying the quotation. In other words, if you are using, say, Judge Davidson's quotation that appears within Oliver Gardner's article, you cite it by writing "qtd. in" following the quote: According to Judge Davidson, "just law is the foundation of a just society" (qtd. in Gardner). Paraphrase, instead of quoting the author word for word, involves putting the original phrasing into your own words. Be careful to substantially reword the original, however. If you leave just several words in a row unchanged, it will be considered plagiarism. Mixed quotations are a mix between direct quotation and paraphrase. Mixed quotations involve paraphrasing half of the original but mixing in a few direct selections from the author. When you insert them, be sure to blend in the quotation with the grammar of your own sentence. The sentence as a whole must flow smoothly. To achieve this you may need to omit or add words from or to the original. To omit words, insert an ellipsis. in place of the words you take out. Ellipses always indicate omission. To add words, put them inside brackets [] to indicate the insertion. Notice that there are spaces between the ellipses dots and that the brackets are square, not rounded like parentheses. For instance, Cummings asserted that the poet's imagination and his "preoccupation with the Verb" results in an ability to surpass normal standards of logic and create "an irresistible truth [in which] 2 x 2 = 5". Notice that the words "in which" inside brackets are insertions. You needed to add them so that the sentence would flow grammatically. Nevertheless, support your quotations with commentary, interpretation, or analysis. Avoid just dropping in the quotation and then immediately moving on, assuming the reader fully understands the meaning, purpose, and application of the quotation just presented.
326. Teenagers problems
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 30.10.2006

One of the worst teenage problems is schooling. Sometimes you feel bad because of teachers or classmates attitude to you. You are tired of studying, thats why you dont have energy and time for doing other things. Also Id like to say that a lot of teens like to look older, thats why they obtain bad habits like smoking, drinking, taking drugs, etc. But a teen can have bad habit because of problems in private life. Absence of the second half, loneliness, lack of pocket money or parents misunderstanding can inspire teen, that his best friend is a bottle or a cigarette. None should be angry because of teens feelings, because the boy or the girl often doesnt control his or her feelings. Streets and street bands can make a teen ruder and crueler, thats why parents shouldnt allow their children to have such interests. I know a lot of boys and girls, who think that cleaning their room is the most important problem of humanity. They think its boring and useless, because the room will become dirty 5 minutes later. I think, teens who have mania to comps are very boring and uninteresting. You cant speak with them about something beside of «Sims» or «GTA». Its a real problem, to my mind. Every teenager has a favorite singer, writer or sportsman. But no one should become a fan, because we can kill our individuality and become clones. Sometimes a quarrel between teens can lead to serious laws violations. Its very dangerous! Also bad relationships between members of the family make the teen very emotional. The teen doesnt get3 along with parents and relatives. Parents press on their child, they think he is iron and he doesnt feel soul ache. Parents want us to study very well; they dont understand that we do everything as good as we can. They dont respect our interests thinking that we become strange because of music or sporty.
327. Terrorism in Europe
Доклад пополнение в коллекции 27.05.2010

Four overlapping segments exist within Northern Ireland. The majority of the unionist community are generally called Unionists and commit to supporting political parties like the Ulster Unionist Party (known for part of the 1970s and 1980s as the Official Unionist Party) or the more militant protestant Democratic Unionist Party. The larger segment of the nationalist catholic community are generally called simply Nationalist and supported at various times the Nationalist Party and since the 1970s the Social Democratic and Labour Party. Both communities had smaller, more radical elements who supported at various times what one IRA strategist called the "armalite and the ballot box" (ie, a combination of electoral politics and violence when necessary). More radical elements within the unionist community came to be called Loyalists while radical nationalists came to be described as Republicans. Each of the radical groups produced their own paramilitary organisations like the Provisional IRA, Official IRA, Continuity IRA, Real IRA, Irish National Liberation Army etc (all republican), and the Ulster Defence Association, Ulster Freedom Fighters, Red Hand Commandos etc (loyalist). Most such groups had their own political organisations, while some of the groups had overlapping memberships. While the various political movements claimed to speak on behalf of the 'majority of the people', electoral votes throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s returned majorities for Nationalist and Unionist parties at the expense of Republican and Loyalist ones, though the latter two did achieve occasional successes, notably the election of MPs in the constituencies of West Belfast and Fermanagh & South Tyrone. At its electoral highpoint during the troubles, in the 1981 Republic of Ireland general election, it won two seats out of one hundred and sixty six in parliament. Sinn Fйin's major electoral successes only followed the ceasefire of the IRA in the 1990s.
328. The Architecture of Ancient Rome
Информация пополнение в коллекции 29.11.2010

Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively confined urban areas. Social elements such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. Drainage was a common problem, as was security. This, together with Rome's growing desire to increase its power and majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts, bridges, roads, municipal structures like public baths, sports facilities and amphitheatres, even central heating systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built. Later, as their empire spread, the Roman architects seized the opportunity to create new towns from scratch, designing urban grid-plans based on two wide streets - a north-south axis (the cardo) and an east-west axis (the decumanus). The town centre was located at the intersection of the two roads. They also built upwards; for example, Ostia, a rich port city near Rome, boasted a number of 5-storey apartment blocks.
329. The art of conversation
Статья пополнение в коллекции 22.08.2006

The ability to talk can be cultivated. To become a really good conversationalist it is necessary to acquire the habit of conscientiously stocking your mind with facts and information and then forming opinions on the basis of that knowledge.
330. The Balmain ironworkers' strike of 1945
Информация пополнение в коллекции 30.06.2010

But frіctіon bеtwееn Communіsts аnd othеr mеmbеrs of thе unіon іn Bаlmаіn wаs not confіnеd to thе job. 1943 sаw а vіolеnt collіsіon bеtwееn thе Fеdеrаl lеаdеrshіp аnd thе Bаlmаіn brаnch еxеcutіvе аnd brаnch mеmbеrs. Thе unіon, whіch hаd bеgun thе protrаctеd procеss of аmаlgаmаtіon wіth thе Munіtіon Workеrs' Unіon, hаd sеt up а Nаtіonаl Еxеcutіvе Councіl to аct аs а commіttее of mаnаgеmеnt for thе combіnеd unіons. Аt thе NЕC mееtіng of Mаy 11-12 аt whіch Brown аnd Stееlе (Brаnch Prеsіdеnt) аnd Lееhy (Fеdеrаl Councіlor from Bаlmаіn) wеrе prеsеnt by іnvіtаtіon, thе Gеnеrаl Prеsіdеnt McHеnry submіttеd а rеport on bеhаlf of Lееhy аnd hіmsеlf on thе workіng of thе brаnch аnd proposеd thаt а nаtіonаl offіcеr contіnuе to аttеnd mееtіngs for thе nеxt thrее months.25 Іmprovеmеnt іn thе work of thе brаnch wаs notеd іn dіscussіon, but аt thе NЕC on July 7 McHеnry wаs complаіnіng thаt еvеnts аt а rеcеnt brаnch mееtіng hаd cаusеd hіm concеrn аnd іndіcаtеd аn unsаtіsfаctory stаtе of аffаіrs. Brown, Stееlе аnd Hаrold Johnson (thе Аssіstаnt Sеcrеtаry) wеrе іnvіtеd to аttеnd thе mееtіng on thе nеxt dаy аnd wеrе quеstіonеd. Thе аnswеrs clеаrly dіd not sаtіsfy thе councіl bеcаusе іt concludеd thаt thе rеport on Bаlmаіn showеd unsаtіsfаctory fеаturеs, but іn ordеr to gеt morе іnformаtіon аbout thе brаnch аnd іts workіng thе councіl would conduct аn іnquіry.26 Thіs would bе cаrrіеd out by NЕ offіcеrs аnd thе brаnch wаs іnvіtеd to еlеct four rеprеsеntаtіvеs аt thе nеxt gеnеrаl mееtіng to tаkе pаrt іn thе іnquіry. Іt іs dіffіcult to fіnd out whаt wеrе thе еxаct poіnts of McHеnry's crіtіcіsm. Thе councіl mіnutеs аrе quіtе unіnformаtіvе. А lаtеr аccount of thе dіsputе іn Lаbor Nеws (formеrly Thе Іronworkеr) clаіmеd thаt thеrе hаd bееn іntеrfеrеncе by brаnch offіcіаls wіth thе rіghts of mеmbеrs to еlеct thеіr own shop stеwаrds аnd аlso thаt Stееlе аs brаnch prеsіdеnt hаd not chаіrеd mееtіngs іmpаrtіаlly.27 Thе quеstіon of fіnаncіаl mаlprаctіcе, whіch fіgurеd so lаrgеly іn thе rеtrospеctіvе chаrgеs аgаіnst thе Bаlmаіn offіcеrs аftеr thеіr dеposіtіon, doеs not sееm to hаvе bееn rаіsеd. Thе mіnutеs of thе brаnch mееtіng thаt hаd cаusеd McHеnry's concеrn rеvеаl thе mаrkеd unwіllіngnеss of brаnch lеаdеrs to аccеpt еіthеr Fеdеrаl offіcе dіrеctіvеs (on how dеlеgаtеs to thе АLP confеrеncе wеrе to votе), or аdvіcе (on аn іndustrіаl clаіm mаdе by Orіglаss on bеhаlf of mеn аt Mort's).28
331. The basic methods of psychological research
Информация пополнение в коллекции 31.10.2011

organization of the natural experiment also may use technical means (but if the examinee does not know about it). For the correct and successful natural experiment to observe all those requirements, which are submitted to the laboratory experiment. According to the research goals experimenter selects the following conditions which provide the most vivid manifestation of certain sides of mental activity. Methods of survey interwork, questionnaire, interwork Very often there is a need for data that can not be obtained by observation and experiment. These data provide methods of questioning. Methods of survey are divided into: · Optic survey - interworks; · Part survey - questionnaires. These methods are used after the formation of hypotheses and a plan of study. Interworks are used, usually after questioning, and they both used after the experiment. Interwork in psychology is the way to a social and psychological information through verbal questioning. In the history of the interwork as a psychological method can distinguish three main stages of development: 1) first interwork was used in psychotherapy and psycho, in turn, this contributed to the emergence of psychological consultation; 2) the use of interworks in sociological and social-psychological research, where he first emerged on the validity of methods of organizing and conducting interworks and accuracy of the information obtained; 3) the current stage of psychological research is characterized by the coordination of practical, theoretical and methodological problems of the interwork in order to use it as a special method of obtaining information through verbal communication. Types of interworks: 1. Free - no regulated subject and form of conversation, not standardized. Provides pre-formulation, which can be changed in the survey. The researcher can follow the general plan of the interwork, it may hold in a free form. Advantage - provides a more natural response, deeper understanding of the phenomenon. Disadvantage - the difficulty of quantitative information processing 2. Standardized - in form it is close to a questionnaire with closed questions. Characterized by well thought-through questions that are put to all respondents in the same wording and order. Questions and their order can not be changed. Advantage - easy to compare results and quantifiable treatment. Disadvantage - the lack of flexibility in setting questions. 3. Napivstandartyzovane - compensating for the shortcomings of both types of interworks to include mandatory questions and variables. Required are all respondents and variables - depending on the depth of their answers. However, the boundaries between these types of interworks are mobile and depend on the complexity of the problem, objectives and the research phase. The degree of freedom is due to interwork the participants list and the form of questions, the notional level of information received - richness and complexity of responses. During the conversation may obtain different situations on the position of the interworker: a) the respondent knows why he acted or should act, and not otherwise; b) the respondent is not enough information about the reasons of their own actions; c) the interworker aims to get symptomatic information although the respondent did not evaluate it as such. Or that the situation involves the use of different methods of interworking. In the first case is sufficient to use an orderly, well-directed series of questions. In two other situations require methods that involve the cooperation of the respondent in the process of finding relevant information. Examples of such methods is the clinical interwork and diagnostic interworks. Diagnostic interworks - a method of obtaining information about individual properties used in the early stages of psychotherapy. This method serves as a special means of establishing close personal contact with the interlocutor. In many situations, clinical work, he is an important way to penetrate the patient's inner world and understanding of its difficulties. There are: 1) controlled - from fully programmed (by type of questionnaire - unchanging and unchangeable strategy tactics) to completely free (constant strategy and tactics is free); 2) uncontrolled, "confessional" where the initiative belongs to the patient. In clinical practice, fully standardized diagnostic interwork is used very rarely. Clinical interworks - a method of therapeutic conversations in the case of psychological help. In psychiatry, psychoanalysis and medical psychology, this method is used to help the patient understand its internal difficulties, conflicts, hidden motives. The clinical interwork is the most free form of conversation, in conversations of this type of psychologist is interested not only direct patient response content (facts, opinions, feelings, verbal number - Dictionary, association of ideas, etc.), but his behavior (tone, gestures, movements etc...) An important prerequisite for successful implementation of the method is to establish positive personal relationships between members of the conversation, which requires the psychologist to be patient, resourceful, to adapt to the interests of the patient. In some cases, the method may have a direct effect of psychotherapy, with the patient not only understands the reasons for their difficulties, but also identifies ways to overcome them. The overall strategy and progress of the method are based on preliminary data and so the diagnosis.- a method of psychosocial research by using structural and organized questions, each of which is associated with the purposes and objectives of research - questionnaires. Depending on the nature of the necessary information and ways to obtain various types of questionnaire: - Solid (covered by large groups of people); - Sample (covered by a specific group of participants); - Oral (by type of interwork); - Writing (work with blank questionnaires); - Individual and group; - Full-time (by direct interaction); - Correspondence (mail, telephone, media, etc.). The process of drawing up the questionnaire - the translation of basic hypotheses persuasion questions. This procedure requires knowledge of types of questions, ability to formulate them in sequence.of questions: 1. Those who find the facts. Put the end of the questionnaire; 2. Those facts show that the behavior, acts of the respondent; 3. Those who find the attitude of the respondent to objects, objects, and its possible actions and their causes. In a separate group of distinguished projective questions when respondent offered a set of situations that can happen with him. Interrogator calls his behavior. These questions are intended to penetrate into the motivation of the respondent to reveal his intentions, thoughts. Questions may be: · Open - the nature, shape, type of advance is not provided; · Closed - with options of possible answers. Chosen only one; · Semiclosed - chosen one or more answers, the respondents should express their opinion. The structure of the questionnaire: 1. Introduction - appeal to the respondent, which indicates who conducted the survey and how the results will be used. Emphasizing the importance of the answers, guaranteed anonymity, specified rules. 2. The main part - Issues relating to research. First are those that are interested in questioning; then - the most complex, designed to clarify thoughts, estimates at the end - the most personal, test questions (specification information). 3. The demographic part - questions about the objective status of individuals (sex, age, education, etc.). Principles of Form: - Fixing of the most significant questions; - The wording of questions should be clear to all respondents according to their level of knowledge; - Questions should be formulated so that they could answer in principle; - Should facilitate complete information; - Should cause a positive reaction, a desire to answer. Application should provide such a response that is true and on surveys and problems, which is the subject of study. Questionnaire is based on theoretical ideas about the nature of the subject of study, according to this grading scale chosen, the types of questions to determine the number and order of questions that are treated. Also in a case study selected the most adequate procedure of questioning with regard to all the circumstances of the situation of cognitive act. Each separate type of survey provides a research situation, and the structure of the questionnaire, including the consistency and richness of emotional issues, means of processing and analyzing data. Conversation - the method of establishing mental features in the process of direct communication. Helps identify the particular character, motives, attitudes. Widely used in various fields of psychology: social, medical, pediatric, and others. In some cases, the conversation is the main means of obtaining factual information is also used as input in guinea situation of psychological experimentation: of clear instructions to communicate freely in the psychotherapy situation.of the conversation:
332. The basical macroeconomics indicators
Информация пополнение в коллекции 01.10.2010
333. The best of all possible worlds Проект:Соединенное Королевство Британии
Доклад пополнение в коллекции 28.07.2010
334. The biography and Charles Dickens's creativity
Информация пополнение в коллекции 18.02.2011

Pip's first encounter with Miss Havisham and Estella is a strange one. He discovers Miss Havisham is a shut-in who has boarded up the windows around the entire house so as not to allow any light in. She remains seated in a tattered chair where she instructs Pip to play cards with Estella. Here, Estella is cruel to Pip, calls him names and laughs at him. Miss Havisham seems to delight in this ill-treatment of Pip and asks him repeatedly what he thinks of Estella in turn by whispering it in her ear. Miss Havisham continuously praises Estella for her pride and her beauty. Hurt and angry, Pip leaves Satis House to walk the grounds and cries. Estella brings him food however she begins to make fun of him again as she sees that he has been crying and teases him for doing so. Outside, Pip is accosted by a young man of about the same age who tries to engage him in a fight. He calls Pip out but Pip refuses to fight with him at first, however, after this has gone on for a time, Pip swings at and strikes the young man, knocking him to the ground. The young man repeatedly encourages Pip to hit him even though he is clearly losing and becoming increasingly battered and bloody. After the fight is over, the two part ways; Estella, having seen the fight, lets Pip kiss her, excited that two young men are fighting for her, and he returns to the forge. Pip's first encounter with Miss Havisham and Estella is a strange one.Pip realizes that he is in love with Estella. Pip behaves badly in society (mostly over jealousy of Estella) and squanders his allowance, running into debt. He is rescued on his 21st birthday, when he is notified by Jaggers that he is awarded 500 pounds (equal to £36,000 today) and an increased steady allowance, until such a time as his benefactor will appear and make himself known to Pip. Pip originally believes Miss Havisham is his benefactress. For several years Estella had been studying abroad in Europe. Upon her return, Pip finds Estella much changed and her attitude refined. She apologizes for her earlier cruelty however, seeing Pip's affections warns him that he should not fall in love with her. Pip ignores these repeated warnings as he long harbored the belief that Miss Havisham (as his benefactress) intended them for each other. Estella continues to warn him that her heart is cold and cannot love him and entreats him to take her seriously, but he refuses, still believing they will be married and that her heart is not as cold as she claims. During this time, Mrs. Joe dies. Pip's benefactor turns out to be instead Abel Magwitch, the convict whom Pip helped, who had been transported toNew South Wales, where he had eventually prospered and become extremely wealthy. Magwitch left all his money to Pip in gratitude for that kindness and also because Pip reminded him of his own child, whom he believes to have been killed by her mother over two decades prior.However, Magwitch now expects to spend the rest of his life living with Pip in England. Pip, very reluctantly, lets Magwitch stay with him. There is a warrant out for Magwitch's arrest in England and he will be hanged if he is caught in the country. Pip becomes increasingly suspicious of being watched and tells his landlord and all other close people that Magwitch is an uncle by the name of Provis.During these events, it is revealed to Pip that Estella is the daughter of Mr. Jaggers' housemaid, Molly, whom he defended in a murder charge and who gave up her daughter to be adopted by another of his clients, Miss Havisham, in return for his service in allowing her to be acquitted of the charge. Pip later realizes Magwitch is Estella's father.Shortly before Magwitch and Pip are scheduled to flee, Pip receives an unsigned note at his home telling him to appear at the marshes near his old home that night at 9pm. Pip is timid at first, but the letter mentions his "Uncle Provis" and threatens his safety. Pip is lured in by the threats to his benefactor and leaves for the village by carriage immediately. On the marshes, Pip is struck on the head by a blunt object, rendering him unconscious for a period of time. When he awakens, he finds himself bound in a small shack far away from any other residences. It is revealed that both the author of the anonymous note and his attacker is Orlick, who admits that he was in fact the one who attacked Mrs. Joe. Orlick confides that he intends to kill Pip as he was always jealous of young Pip when he worked with Joe and for Pip's intervention with his advances on Biddy. Pip is sure he is going to die though he refuses to cry out or beg for mercy. Pip is rescued by Herbert, a village shop boy. Meanwhile, out of spite for Miss Havisham, Estella has married Bentley Drummle, a boastful rival of Pip's whom he very much dislikes.Pip, Herbert and another friend, Startop, make a gallant attempt to help Magwitch escape, but instead he is captured and sent to jail. Pip is devoted to Magwitch by now and recognizes in him a good and noble man and is ashamed that he had formerly looked down on Magwitch as his inferior. Pip tries to have Magwitch released but Magwitch dies shortly before his execution. Under English law Magwitch's wealth forfeits to the Crown, thus extinguishing Pip's "Great Expectations". During an extended period of sickness, Pip is nearly arrested for his numerous unpaid debts to several creditors however due to his condition, which includes fever, he is not arrested at that time. During this illness, he is looked after by Joe and he eventually returns to good health. Joe leaves early one morning leaving Pip with only a note of well-wishes, believing that as Pip had not visited him in years since, he would not visit him then and that he likely would never see Pip again. Pip is greatly saddened by this turn of events and realizes how thankless and ungrateful he had been over the years. His guilt is compounded by the discovery that the police did not leave to allow Pip time to recover, but because Joe had paid all of his debts in full. Pip returns home to ask Biddy and Joe for forgiveness and to thank Joe for his unprovoked kindness, and unfailing love for which Pip felt unworthy. When he arrives in the village, he finds that it is Biddy and Joe's wedding day. He congratulates the couple, Afterwards, Pip goes into business overseas with Herbert. After eleven relatively successful years abroad, Pip goes back to visit Joe and the rest of his family out in the marshes. Pip meets Estella on the streets. Her abusive husband Drummle has died. Estella and Pip exchange brief pleasantries and Pip states that while he could not have her in the end, he was at least glad to know she was a different person now, changed from the coldhearted girl Miss Havisham had reared her to be. The novel ends with Pip saying he could see that "suffering had been stronger than Miss Havisham's teaching and had given her a heart to understand what my heart used to be.
335. The biography Jennifer Lopez
Реферат пополнение в коллекции 17.07.2007

In the course of time the love to dance and a song at young Jennifer Lopez only has amplified. Jennifer Lopez since fourteen years began to take lessons of singing and with pleasure acted in all school statements. However mum perceived its hobbies only as a hobby. Guadeloupe wanted, that the daughter has acted in college and became the lawyer. Therefore Jenny it was necessary to leave dreams of career of the singer and to obey will of parents. Under their insisting in 17 years she goes for work in legal office. Here on eyes the announcement of reception of students in dancing school of Manhattan where Jennifer Lopez and acts comes across it. So, in the afternoon - work, and evenings and at night she dances. Then Jennifer Lopez acts in college. But also she visits school of dances with not smaller eagerness. After all a semester, finally having decided to become the dancer, the future star throws college. And for this reason she leaves a house as parents did not understand its aspirations.
336. The Black Death
Информация пополнение в коллекции 25.04.2008

Such was the form which the plague assumed in the fourteenth century, for the accompanying chest affection which appeared in all the countries whereof we have received any account, cannot, on a comparison with similar and familiar symptoms, be considered as any other than the inflammation of the lungs of modern medicine, a disease which at present only appears sporadically, and, owing to a putrid decomposition of the fluids, is probably combined with hemorrhages from the vessels of the lungs. Now, as every carbuncle, whether it be cutaneous or internal, generates in abundance the matter of contagion which has given rise to it, so, therefore, must the breath of the affected have been poisonous in this plague, and on this account its power of contagion wonderfully increased; wherefore the opinion appears incontrovertible, that owing to the accumulated numbers of the diseased, not only individual chambers and houses, but whole cities were infected, which, moreover, in the Middle Ages, were, with few exceptions, narrowly built, kept in a filthy state, and surrounded with stagnant ditches. Flight was, in consequence, of no avail to the timid; for even though they had sedulously avoided all communication with the diseased and the suspected, yet their clothes were saturated with the pestiferous atmosphere, and every inspiration imparted to them the seeds of the destructive malady, which, in the greater number of cases, germinated with but too much fertility. Add to which, the usual propagation of the plague through clothes, beds, and a thousand other things to which the pestilential poison adheres--a propagation which, from want of caution, must have been infinitely multiplied; and since articles of this kind, removed from the access of air, not only retain the matter of contagion for an indefinite period, but also increase its activity and engender it like a living being, frightful ill- consequences followed for many years after the first fury of the pestilence was past.
337. The British Character and English Humour
Информация пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

Between Russian and British I found some common characteristics, such as the famous empire mentality. Great Britain, as we know, was once geographically very great and many British people still think or their land as great an strong. They still think that British is the "best." I can see similar in the Russian attitude. Here. perhaps I am close with my wife, even though she does not like to admit this mentality.
338. The British language teaching
Информация пополнение в коллекции 29.12.2011
339. The Business Cycles as a Form of Economic Development
Информация пополнение в коллекции 17.03.2011

This cycle is believed to be accounted for by time lags in information movements affecting the decision making of commercial firms. Firms react to the improvement of commercial situation through the increase in output through the full employment of the extent fixed capital assets. As a result, within a certain period of time the market gets flooded with commodities whose quantity becomes gradually excessive. The demand declines, prices drop, the produced commodities get accumulated in inventories, which informs entrepreneurs of the necessity to reduce output. However, this process takes some time. It takes some time for the information that the supply exceeds significantly the demand to get to the businessmen. Further it takes entrepreneurs some time to check this information and to make the decision to reduce production, some time is also necessary to materialize this decision (these are the time lags that generate the Kitchin cycles). Another relevant time lag is the lag between the materialization of the above mentioned decision (causing the capital assets to work well below the level of their full employment) and the decrease of the excessive amounts of commodities accumulated in inventories. Yet, after this decrease takes place one can observe the conditions for a new phase of growth of demand, prices, output, etc.
340. The Clash of Civilizations
Информация пополнение в коллекции 27.09.2006
References:
1. Fox, Jonathon. Ethnic minorities and the clash of civilizations: A quantitative analysis of Huntington's thesis. British Journal of Political Science. 32(3). 415-435.
2. Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Anthropology and the politics of significance. Social Analysis. 4(3). 107-138.
3. Huntington. Samuel, 1993. The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3):22-49.
4. Graham, James. May, 2004. Samuel P. Huntington's Clash of Civilisations. www.HistoryOrb.com
5. Samuel P. Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 43.
6. Clash of civilizations. Online resourses from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
7. Shireen T. Hunter, "The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence?", Fouad Ajami, M.E Ahrari, "The Clash of Civilizations: An Old Story or New Truth?", Yuksel Sezgin, "Does Islam Pose A Threat to the West?" Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 2, (June-August 2000)
8. Edward W. Said, "The Clash of Ignorance", The Nation, October 22 2001 and Mahmood Monshipouri, "The West's Modern Encounter With Islam: From Discourse to Reality".
9. Robert Marks, "The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order" (Book Rework).
10. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, "Islam and the West; Testing the Clash of Civilizations Thesis", John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Papers Series (RWP02-015), April 2002, p.14 (http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP02-015/$File/rwp02_015_norris_rev1.pdf)

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