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  • 441. Learning languages
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    The problem of learning languages is very important today. Foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. The total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven years. Foreign languages are needed as the main and most efficient means of information exchange of the people of our planet.Today English is the language of the world. Over 350 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, the South African Republic. As a second language it is used in the former British and US colonies.It is the major international language for communication in such areas as science, technology, business and mass entertainment. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organization. It is the language of the literature, education, modern music, international tourism.

  • 442. Legros, Alphonse
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    After a penurious youth, when he studied under Lecoq de Boisbaudran, he had some considerable success at the Salon, and several of his works were bought by the state. In 1863, however, he participated in the Salon des Refusйs, partly under the influence of his friend Whistler. He came to London in the same year and taught first at the South Kensington School of Fine Art and then at the Slade, where he exerted a great influence on those artists who were to become the nucleus of the New English Art Club. Although he could in no way be thought of as an Impressionist, on the invitation of Degas he participated in the second Impressionist exhibition and was an invaluable contact between Paris and London in the dissemination of Impressionist ideas. Pissarro was very dubious about his teaching methods, especially when Lucien, his son, was working under him. Legros' own paintings were rather sentimental genre scenes (The Angelus, 1859; Musйe d'Orsay).

  • 443. Leipzig als eine Messestadt
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    Seit der Grndung ist Leipzig wegen seiner gnstigen Lage ein Handelsplatz zwischen Ost und West. Jetzt hat Leipzig schon die Bedeutung einer der grten Messestdte verloren, aber frher war es wirklich eine bedeutende Messestadt. Zweimal im Jahr, im Frhling und im Herbst, kamen Kaufleute in dieser Handelsmetropole der Welt zusammen, um zu kaufen oder verkaufen und das Neueste aus allen Wirtschaftszweigen zu erfahren. Bereits im 12.Jahrhundert wurden in Leipzig Messen durchgefhrt, aber damals hieen sie noch Jahrmrkte. In dieser Stadt wird noch eine Urkunde sorgfltig aufbewahrt. In ihr heit es, da Leipzig das Stadtrecht erhlt, weil dort Mrkte durchgefhrt wurden.

  • 444. Leisure
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    When we have time for leisure, we usually need something that can amuse and interest us. There are several ways to do this. People use radio or television. They switch on the radio set or TV set and choose the programme they like best. Some people like music. They listen to various concerts of modern and old music, new and old songs, and see dances. Those who are fond of sports listen to or watch football and hockey matches. These are the most popular kinds of sports. There are a lot of fans among people. They can also see championships in athletics and other kinds of sports. Radio and television extend our knowledge about the world. Television helps us to “visit” different lands, see new plants, animals, unusual birds, fish and insects, mountains and valleys, lakes, rivers and seas. We are shown different countries, cities and towns and people who live there. This is what we can do at home.

  • 445. Leisure and Activities
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    Many youths are involved in community service organizations. Some are active in church and religious-group activities. Others belong to youth groups such as Girl Scouts or Boy Scouts. About three million girls aged six to 17 years old belong to Girl Scouts, for example. They learn about citizenship, crafts, arts, camping and other outdoor activities.

  • 446. Leisure time
    Статьи Разное

    The Scouts and Pioneers were the first, but not the only organisations of the young people. For example today the volunteer movement is extremely popular among the teenagers. It dates back to the year 1921, when a French soldier decided to restore a German house after World War I free of charge. The movement flourished only in the late 1990s when young people of Europe and the United States went to different parts of the world helping local communities to solve their problems. Today volunteerism is very popular in American community and political life. Volunteerism implies assisting people through privately initiated agencies. Volunteers do not receive any salary for what they are doing, but at the same time their work is highly motivated. They react very quickly, immediately coming to help to whoever may need it. There are several types of volunteer work: workcamps, mid-term and long-term volunteering projects. Any young man from any continent can come to workcamps. These camps attain certain objectives in social, ecological, archaeological fields. Usually all works are done under the supervision of professionals. The mid-and long-term projects usually concern the social sphere. They include assistance to children, old people, crippled or immigrants. Volunteer fund-raising groups unite to help the needy in all spheres. They can do almost any work that is necessary. Volunteers can be found in any part of the globe. In the United States six out of ten pupils are members of some volunteer organisations.

  • 447. Leisure time of British teenagers
    Статьи Разное

    The majority of teenagers in Great Britain spend their free time as everywhere in the world. The average young person spends about 19 hours in front of the television. According to the government report nearly three-quarter of young people have TV sets in their rooms. Besides watching TV, other activities like cinema going and sport remain popular. In Wales, the report says that some 50 percent of boys play football throughout the winter while a great number of girls also play football, although they are in general prefer swimming and tennis.

  • 448. l'enseignement en France
    Статьи Разное

    Les universites accueillent tous les candidats ayant le bac sans fair de selection. Plus de la moitie des bacheliers y entrent, mais 40% environ abandonnent au cours de la premier annee. On entre a luniversite pour des etudes de lettres, de sciences economiques, de medicine, de pharmacie, de droit, etc. Ces etudes reparties sur trois cycles et sur plusieurs annees detudes, permettent dobtenir des diplomes et de se preparer a certains concours:

    1. le premier cycle prepare en deux ans au diplome detudes universitaires generales (DEUG);
    2. le second cycle dure deux ans: une annee apres le DEUG prepare a la licence, et une annee apres le licence prepare a la maitrise;
    3. le troisieme cycle ou il y a deux filieres: 1) le DESS diplome detudes superieures spicialisees cest un diplome professionnel; 2) le DEA - diplome detudes approfondies qui prepare a la recherche.
  • 449. Leonardo da Vinci
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    There has never been an artist who was more fittingly, and without qualification, described as a genius. Like Shakespeare, Leonardo came from an insignificant background and rose to universal acclaim. Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a local lawyer in the small town of Vinci in the Tuscan region. His father acknowledged him and paid for his training, but we may wonder whether the strangely self-sufficient tone of Leonardo's mind was not perhaps affected by his early ambiguity of status. The definitive polymath, he had almost too many gifts, including superlative male beauty, a splendid singing voice, magnificent physique, mathematical excellence, scientific daring... the list is endless. This overabundance of talents caused him to treat his artistry lightly, seldom finishing a picture, and sometimes making rash technical experiments. The Last Supper, in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, for example, has almost vanished, so inadequate were his innovations in fresco preparation.

  • 450. Les droits des femmes d'hier et d'aujourd'hui
    Статьи Разное

    Les femmes modernes ont un droit légal de faire à peu prêt tout ce qu'un homme fait; cependant, elles vivent encore l'opposition et le mépris quand elles occupent des rôles traditionnellement réservés aux hommes. Bien que ce ne soit pas une loi, on s'attend à ce que la femme soit la dispensatrice des soins, quoique les hommes s'engagent beaucoup plus dans les affaires ménagères. Les femmes ont beaucoup plus d'influence en politique, encore que les politiciens au parlement soient majoritairement des hommes. Ici, on doit attirer l'attention sur les responsabilités professionnelles et domestiques. Les femmes doivent maintenant conjuguer leurs rôles d'épouse, de mère et d'employé. Il n'y a aucune limite technique ou légale quant à l'éducation ou au choix de carrière. Les femmes ont fréquemment un diplôme universitaire. Les seules limites sont le " deux poids deux mesures ", les iniquités salariales par rapport aux hommes, le " plafonnement voilé " à l'avancement professionnel et la pénible réalité de conjuguer les obligations professionnelles et familiales. Maintenant on peut dire: Salaire égal à travail égal, - cest la fin de la pauvreté des femmes et la fin de la violence faite aux femmes. Les étudiants doivent puiser dans leurs connaissances de l'actualité, cependant, les méthodes demeurent essentiellement les mêmes (ex. , pétitions, tribunaux, rassemblements et débats publics) en plus des campagnes d'information publique, des entrevues télévisées, des groupes de pression, etc. Cet aspect nécessite que les étudiants soient sensibilisés et aient une opinion sur l'actualité. De nos jours, il y a des efforts spécifiques pour assurer que les droits des femmes sont respectés et appliqués et que la violation de ces droits soit dénoncée et rectifiée. La réaction de la société est généralement positive. Il peut y avoir de l'opposition à l'égalité de la femme, mais il s'agit généralement de réactions individuelles plutôt que sociétales.

  • 451. Les energies renouvelables
    Статьи Разное
  • 452. Les fetes en France
    Статьи Разное

    Etant consacrée à la Vierge, la fête de la Chandeleur est censée etre propice à lamour: elle favorise les opérations destinées à rêver de son futur époux. En Franche-Comté par exemple, les jeunes gens faisaient une neuvaine à la chapelle deMarie: tous les jours jusquà la veille du 2 février, ils assistaient à la première messe et à la prière du soir, puis, dans leurs chambres, dressaient une table avec deux couverts, sans couteaux toutefois, avec le linge le plus blanc, le plus fin et la plus belle vaisselle. Deux morceaux de pain bénit étaient placés près de chaque assiette, un peu de vin versé dans chaque verre, et deux brins dun arbuste au feuillage vert et deux branches de buis bénit disposés en croix ornaient le milieu de la table. Alors on ouvrait la porte au large pour le convive attendu, puis on sasseyait à table en adressant une prière à la Sainte-Vierge. Après avoir mangé un morceau du pain bénit et bu le vin versé. On se couchait. La jeune fille devait rêver de celui qui lui était destiné et le jeune homme de sa future compagne. Celles qui voyaient des processions de nonnes entraient au couvent; celles qui devaient mourir jeunes assistaient à leur propre enterrement.

  • 453. Les freres Montgolfier
    Статьи Разное

    5 juin 1783. Les habitants sont venues en foule sur la place dAnnonay. A laide de cordes, quelques hommes maintiennent le ballon au-dessus dun rechaud rempli de paille. On allume la paille, lair chaud gonfle le ballon. Les hommes lachent les cordes, et lappareil gigantesque la montgolfiere, comme on va lappeler seleve au-dessus des spectateurs qui applaudissent.

  • 454. Lexicology
    Статьи Разное

    Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations may be defined as repatterning ( representing , reorganization ) of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns . As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic transformational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness / difference of the lexical units but also in the analysis of the factors that account for their polysemy . Word-groups of identical distributional structure when repatterned show that the semantic relations between words & consequently the meaning may be different .e. g. A pattern “possessive pronoun ”+”noun”(his car , his failure , his arrest, his kindness ). According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as : he has a car , he failed , he was arrested , he is kind. In each of the cases different meaning is revealed : possession , action , passive action , quality .The rules of transformation are rather strict & shouldnt be identified with paraphrasing in the usual sense of the term .There are many restrictions both on syntactic & lexical levels . These are :

    1. Permutation the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships between words & word-stems of the lexical units are not changed .e. g. “His work is excellent “ may be transformed into “ his excellent work , the excellence of his work , he works excellently “.In the example given the relationships between lexical units & the stems of the notional words are essentially the same .
    2. Replacement the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a member of a certain strictly defined set of lexical units .e. g. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake & he will make a good teacher ). The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the second one the verb “to make “ can be substituted by “ become “ or “ be “ . The fact of impossibility of identical transformations of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of the difference in their meaning .
  • 455. Lexicology of the English Language
    Статьи Разное

    The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters «0» and « » /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.

  • 456. Lexicology. Word structure in Modern English
    Статьи Разное

    However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [r?-], [d?-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [r?-] or [d?-], nor the [-te?n] or [-s?:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [r?-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-te?n] distinguishes retain from receive.

  • 457. Liabilities for transactions before incorporation
    Статьи Разное

    2)It doesn't matter to whom the affirmance is made. It could be to the agent, to the third party, or anyone else or nobody at all. Why? Because what was lacking in the original contract was merely his expression of assent to the relationship of agency. The terms are fixed, the third party believes he has an agreement, all that's missing is the opposite party. So the President of the firm's note to himself that the affirms may be sufficient. If there are some formalities required to authorize an act e.g., sealed instruments, deeds then there might be additional formality required for affirmance.

  • 458. Linguistic Pecularities Of Contracts in English
    Статьи Разное

     

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  • 459. Literature
    Статьи Разное

    The word "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and sculptures to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language (Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital media. The Muslim scholar and philosopher Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (702-765 AD) defined Literature as follows: "Literature is the garment which one puts on what he says or writes so that it may appear more attractive."[1] added that literature is a slice of life that has been given direction and meaning, an artistic interpretation of the world according to the percipient's point of works. Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. Russian Formalist Roman Jakobson defines literature as "organized violence committed on ordinary speech", highlighting literature's deviation from the day-to-day and conversational structure of words. Illustrated stories, hypertexts, cave paintings and inscribed monuments have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature."

  • 460. Lomonosov
    Статьи Разное

    M.L. was born in 1711 in Arhangelsk province. He liked to spend his time fishing with his father. He began to read him self then he was a little boy. He wanted to study and then he was 19 he went on foot to Moscow.