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1101. Les energies renouvelables
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009
1102. Les fetes en France
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

Etant consacrée à la Vierge, la fête de la Chandeleur est censée etre propice à lamour: elle favorise les opérations destinées à rêver de son futur époux. En Franche-Comté par exemple, les jeunes gens faisaient une neuvaine à la chapelle deMarie: tous les jours jusquà la veille du 2 février, ils assistaient à la première messe et à la prière du soir, puis, dans leurs chambres, dressaient une table avec deux couverts, sans couteaux toutefois, avec le linge le plus blanc, le plus fin et la plus belle vaisselle. Deux morceaux de pain bénit étaient placés près de chaque assiette, un peu de vin versé dans chaque verre, et deux brins dun arbuste au feuillage vert et deux branches de buis bénit disposés en croix ornaient le milieu de la table. Alors on ouvrait la porte au large pour le convive attendu, puis on sasseyait à table en adressant une prière à la Sainte-Vierge. Après avoir mangé un morceau du pain bénit et bu le vin versé. On se couchait. La jeune fille devait rêver de celui qui lui était destiné et le jeune homme de sa future compagne. Celles qui voyaient des processions de nonnes entraient au couvent; celles qui devaient mourir jeunes assistaient à leur propre enterrement.
1103. Les freres Montgolfier
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

5 juin 1783. Les habitants sont venues en foule sur la place dAnnonay. A laide de cordes, quelques hommes maintiennent le ballon au-dessus dun rechaud rempli de paille. On allume la paille, lair chaud gonfle le ballon. Les hommes lachent les cordes, et lappareil gigantesque la montgolfiere, comme on va lappeler seleve au-dessus des spectateurs qui applaudissent.
1104. Les problemes des parties du discours en francais
Информация пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

Les 3 criteres qui sont a la base de al distinction des parties du discours sont intimement lies entre eux. Cest le sens categoriel qui determine les categories morphologiques et les fonctions syntaxiques du mot. En fin de compte, les parties du discours se determinent par leur valeur denominative, cest-a-dire par ce que les mots representent et par la facon dont ils le representent. Selon le mode de denomination on distingue les parties du discours essentielles et subsidaires. Les premieres refletent la realite et nomment les choses dune facon discontinue, independante et directe. Les parties du discours subsidaires designent la realite globalement (interjections, mots-phrases), de facon non-independante ou indirecte. Selon le caractere des objets refletes, on distingue, parmi les parties du discours essentielles, les verbes, les substantifs, les adjectifs, les adverbes et les numeraux, qui expriment respectivement les substances, les processus (actions, etats), les caracteristiques des substances ou des processus et les nombres. On compte 4 classes de mots-outils en francais: determinatifs (article), prepositions, conjonctions, particules. Ainsi on trouve 12 parties du discours en francais (5 essentielles, 7 subsidaires).
1105. Lexicology
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009
Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations may be defined as repatterning ( representing , reorganization ) of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns . As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic transformational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness / difference of the lexical units but also in the analysis of the factors that account for their polysemy . Word-groups of identical distributional structure when repatterned show that the semantic relations between words & consequently the meaning may be different .e. g. A pattern “possessive pronoun ”+”noun”(his car , his failure , his arrest, his kindness ). According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as : he has a car , he failed , he was arrested , he is kind. In each of the cases different meaning is revealed : possession , action , passive action , quality .The rules of transformation are rather strict & shouldnt be identified with paraphrasing in the usual sense of the term .There are many restrictions both on syntactic & lexical levels . These are :
1. Permutation the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships between words & word-stems of the lexical units are not changed .e. g. “His work is excellent “ may be transformed into “ his excellent work , the excellence of his work , he works excellently “.In the example given the relationships between lexical units & the stems of the notional words are essentially the same .
2. Replacement the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a member of a certain strictly defined set of lexical units .e. g. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake & he will make a good teacher ). The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the second one the verb “to make “ can be substituted by “ become “ or “ be “ . The fact of impossibility of identical transformations of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of the difference in their meaning .
1106. Lexicology of the English Language
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters «0» and « » /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.
1107. Lexicology. Different dialects and accents of English
Информация пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

Speaking about the historic causes of these deviations it is necessary to mention that American English is based on the language imported to the new continent at the time of the first settlements, that is on the English of the 17th century. The first colonies were founded in 1607, so that the first colonizers were contemporaries of Shakespeare, Spenser and Milton. Words which have died out in Britain, or changed their meaning may survive in the USA. Thus, I guess was used by Chaucer for I think. For more than three centuries the American vocabulary developed more or less independently of the British stock and, was influenced by the new surroundings. The early Americans had to coin words for the unfamiliar fauna and flora. Hence bull-frog 'a large frog', moose (the American elk), oppossum, raccoon (an American animal related to the bears), for animals; and corn, hickory, etc. for plants. They also had to find names for the new conditions of economic life: back-country 'districts not yet thickly populated', back-settlement, backwoods 'the forest beyond the cleared country', backwoodsman 'a dweller in the backwoods'.
1108. Lexicology. Word structure in Modern English
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [r?-], [d?-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [r?-] or [d?-], nor the [-te?n] or [-s?:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [r?-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-te?n] distinguishes retain from receive.
1109. Lexico-semantic characteristics of business letter correspondence
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

"The figures must be approved" are obscure ones leaving unsettled who it is that delivers, who decides, and who does the approving. Which side it is to be? Lawsuits are the plausible outcome of leaving it all unsettled. Passives used in contracts can destroy the whole negotiations. "You will deliver" is better for it identifies the one who will do delivering. Certainly, "must be approved by us" violates other canons. "We shall have the right but not the obligation to approve" is less unfortunate. There is no doubt that passives do not suit business letters, and if they go all the way through without adding something like "by you" or "by us" they are intolerable. Once in a long while one may find passives used purposely to leave something unresolved. In those circumstances they will be in class with "negotiate in good faith", which I've examined earlier.
1110. Lexico-sementic chartersticcs of business letter correspondence
Реферат пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

"The figures must be approved" are obscure ones leaving unsettled who it is that delivers, who decides, and who does the approving. Which side it is to be? Lawsuits are the plausible outcome of leaving it all unsettled. Passives used in contracts can destroy the whole negotiations. "You will deliver" is better for it identifies the one who will do delivering. Certainly, "must be approved by us" violates other canons. "We shall have the right but not the obligation to approve" is less unfortunate. There is no doubt that passives do not suit business letters, and if they go all the way through without adding something like "by you" or "by us" they are intolerable. Once in a long while one may find passives used purposely to leave something unresolved. In those circumstances they will be in class with "negotiate in good faith", which I've examined earlier.
1111. Liabilities for transactions before incorporation
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

2)It doesn't matter to whom the affirmance is made. It could be to the agent, to the third party, or anyone else or nobody at all. Why? Because what was lacking in the original contract was merely his expression of assent to the relationship of agency. The terms are fixed, the third party believes he has an agreement, all that's missing is the opposite party. So the President of the firm's note to himself that the affirms may be sufficient. If there are some formalities required to authorize an act e.g., sealed instruments, deeds then there might be additional formality required for affirmance.
1112. Lifestyle and Being Green
Доклад пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

Which means of transport should you prefer when you're going on a trip? If you care about the environment you'll definitely choose one that doesn't harm the environment. Modern towns and cities faced the traffic problem long ago. The specialists suggest different ways of its solution. Some people think that if we build more roads the traffic will move more quickly and there'll be no traffic jams during rush-hours. Others suppose that if there are more roads there'll be more cars to fill them and they will be even more congested with traffic. Environmentalists suggest that we should develop the system of public transport for example, railways. If trains carry more people, the streets will be less congested with traffic and people. Moreover, cars pollute the air more than trains. Experienced motorists know how many people are killed and injured in road accidents.
1113. Linguistic Pecularities Of Contracts in English
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009
1. Англо-русский экономический словарь. М., 1976.
2. Арнольд И.В. Лексикология современного английского языка. М.: Изд-во лит-ры на иностр. языках, 1959. 351 с.
3. Арнольд И.В. Основы лингвистических исследований: Учеб. пособие. М.: Высш. шк., 1991. 140 с.
4. Бурмистрова Н., Котляр В. Английский язык для эффективного менеджмента. М.: “Технологическая школа бизнеса”, 1994, 264 с.
5. Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка. М., 1981. 336 с.
6. Голденков М. Азы английского сленга и деловой переписки. Мн.: издательский дом, 1994. 128 с.
7. Деловая перемена с иностранными фирмами. Практическое пособие. М.: “Имидж”, 1991, 431 с.
8. Демидова А.К., Смирнов Э.А. Русская коммерческая корреспонденция (для говорящих на английском языке). М.: Русский язык, 1993. 323 с.
9. Израилевич Е.Е. Учебник коммерческой корреспонденции и документации на английском языке. М.: Внешторгиздат, 1964. 447 с.
10. Котий Г.А., Гюльмиссаров В.Р. Деловые письма на английском языке. Образцы с переводом на русский язык (Практическое пособие). М.: 1 Федеративная Книготорговая Компания, 1998. 1998. 192 с.
11. Лозинская Р.Г. Документ как тип текста и его стилистические характеристики. / Тезисы к 7-му зональному совещанию Восточно-Сибирского региона. Часть I. Иркутск, 1983.
12. Лукьянова Н.А. Настольная книга бизнесмена. Курс английского языка по коммерческой деятельности и формам деловой коммуникации. М.: “ВТИ Дейта Пресс”, 1993, 570 с.
13. Майерс Л.М. Пишем по-английски: руководство по грамматике и письму на английском языке. СП б.: Лань, 1997. 448 с.
14. Новый англо-русский словарь под общим руководством проф. А.М. Смирницкого. М., 1995.
15. Русско-английский словарь / В.М. Мюллер, В.А. Камлан, В.А. Дашевская. М., 1995.
16. Сальникова Л.В. Английский язык для менеджеров. М.: Метод, 1992. 183 с.
17. Современный английский язык (Слово и предложение): Учеб. метод. пособие для студентов педвузов и фак-тов иностр. яз. Иркутск,1997. 409 с.
18. Gordon E.M., Krylova I.P. The English Verbals.- M.: Международные отношения, 1973. 215 с.
19. Dear Sirs! Деловая переписка по-английски. М.: Культура,1993. 328 с.
20. Everyday and Business English. СП б.: Содействие,1992. 192 с.
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22. Leech G., Svartvik J. Communicative Grammar of English. М.: Просвещение, 1983. 304 с.
23. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. M., 1992.
1114. Literature
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

The word "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and sculptures to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language (Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital media. The Muslim scholar and philosopher Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (702-765 AD) defined Literature as follows: "Literature is the garment which one puts on what he says or writes so that it may appear more attractive."[1] added that literature is a slice of life that has been given direction and meaning, an artistic interpretation of the world according to the percipient's point of works. Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. Russian Formalist Roman Jakobson defines literature as "organized violence committed on ordinary speech", highlighting literature's deviation from the day-to-day and conversational structure of words. Illustrated stories, hypertexts, cave paintings and inscribed monuments have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature."
1115. Lomonosov
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

M.L. was born in 1711 in Arhangelsk province. He liked to spend his time fishing with his father. He began to read him self then he was a little boy. He wanted to study and then he was 19 he went on foot to Moscow.
1116. London
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

If the City is the business part of London, Westminster is the centre of administration. We can see the Houses of Parliament there. It is a beautiful building with two towers and a very big clock called Big Ben. The Houses of Parliament stand in Parliament Square. Westminster Abbey is opposite the Houses of Parliament. Many great Englishmen were buried in Westminster Abbey. To the west of Westminster Abbey you can see Buckingham Pa-lace. It is a royal residence. The ceremony of the chan-ging of the guards which takes place in front of Bucking-ham Palace is of great interest to the tourists.
1117. London - the capital of Great Britain
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

When we think of Paris, Rome. Madrid, Lisbon and other European capitals, we think of them as "cities'. When we think of the whole of modern London, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, that great area covering several hundred square kilometres, we do not think of it as 'a city. not even as a city and its suburbs. Modem London is not one city that has steadily become larger through the centuries; it is a number of cities. towns, and villages that have, during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urban area.
1118. London city - Capital of the United Kingdom
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

The City of London, about 1 square mile (2.7 square km) in area, is the core of an area called Inner, or Central, London, which contains the City of London and 13 of the 33 boroughs of Greater London. The central point in the City of London is an open space from which eight streets radiate. On the southern side is Mansion House, residence of the lord mayor of London. Lombard Street, the traditional banking street, is nearby, as are the Bank of England headquarters, the Royal Exchange, and the Stock Exchange. To the east is the fortress-castle known as the Tower of London, whose core dates from the late 11th century and is surrounded by constructions from many periods of English architecture. To the west lie the Inns of Court, longtime chambers and offices of barristers and lawyers-in-training, and the Royal Courts of Justice, or Law Courts. The City of London and the City of Westminster are linked by the Strand, an avenue upon which are located two of London's oldest churches, St. Clement Dane's and St. Mary-le-Strand.
1119. London's Villages
Статья пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

London is richly endowed with neighborhoods which, despite their absorption into the growing metropolis, have still retained their village character. The history of these villages varies greatly. Some, such as Shoreditch and Stepney, originated as agricultural settlements very close to the edge of the City, and soon became incorporated into the urban fabric. Others were at a greater distance from the City and remained free-standing settlements amidst the fields of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent or Essex until well into the 18th century and beyond. They were ultimately converted into suburbs by a number of factors: turnpike roads brought Hampstead and Highgate into the parameters of 18th-century London, while 19th-century railway developments accounted for the absorption of Balham and Enfield. In the 20th century, Underground lines meant that even far-flung centres such as Edgware and Morden became part of Greater London. In addition, London has its share of planned "villages" such as Hampstead Garden Suburb, which followed the opening of the Golders Green Underground station in 1907, and Bedford Park, which was described by John Betjeman as "the most significant suburb built in the last century, probably in the western world".
1120. Long Day's Journey Into the Night
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

Edmund and Jamie are heard laughing in the next room, and Tyrone immediately grows bitter, assuming they are making jokes about him. Edmund and Jamie enter, and we see that, even though he is just 23 years old, Edmund is "plainly in bad health" and nervous. Upon entering, Jamie begins to stare at his mother, thinking that she is looking much better. The conversation turns spiteful, however, when the sons begin to make fun of Tyrone's loud snoring, a subject about which he is sensitive, driving him to anger. Edmund tells him to calm down, leading to an argument between the two. Tyrone then turns on Jamie, attacking him for his lack of ambition and laziness. To calm things down, Edmund tells a funny story about a tenant named Shaughnessy on the Tyrone family land in Ireland, where the family's origins lie. Tyrone is not amused by the anecdote, however, because he could be the subject of a lawsuit related to ownership of the land. He attacks Edmund again, calling his comments socialist. Edmund gets upsets and exits in a fit of coughing. Jamie points out that Edmund is really sick, a comment which Tyrone responds to with a "shut up" look, as though trying to prevent Mary from finding out something. Mary tells them that, despite what any doctor may say, she believes that Edmund has nothing more than a bad cold. Mary has a deep distrust for doctors. Tyrone and Jamie begin to stare at her again, making her self-conscious. Mary reflects on her faded beauty, recognizing that she is in the stages of decline.

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