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Человек язык общество материалы международной научной конференции (6 октября 2006г.) Хабаровск Издательство тогу 2006

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A.V. Leonenko I.F. Umanets Pacific State University
Aids disease- can the problem be solved?
Translation and modern technologies in translation
Кейс-метод как инновация
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A.V. Leonenko


I.F. Umanets

Pacific State University




MAN and naturE in socIOCULTURAL DIMENSION:

topical SociOecological problems

of POPULATION OF MINer communities


The rush development of life in the 21st century is intensifying the general sensation of danger. Human world is experiencing an overall crisis: the global problem of the environment, the dead-end of man-caused development of the society, the world outlook crisis. It includes primarily the deformation of the environment, the disturbance of biodiversity, the qualitative change of the hydrosphere, the decline in living standards, the increase in poverty and accidents, the spreading of alcoholism, drug addiction, terrorism, etc.

The abovementioned problems are the social ones with which the society is trying to struggle. The education has to provide the population with the knowledge which will allow to forecast and prevent the crisis situations and to manage the natural processes. According to a great number of scientists the only alternative in this situation is to secure stable and safe development. Harmonious development of the society and the principle of rational nature management are the key elements in the coexistence of a man and nature /1/

Many outstanding figures of the past tried to understand the role of a man in the course of the development of earth nature and the world as a whole. The prominent Russian naturalist and thinker V.I. Vernadsky as long as in 1926 raised the idea of reasonable nature management up to the conception of the noosphere or sustainable development in present-day comprehension. Academician
V.I. Vernadsky understood that a man would have to take the responsibility for the further fate of the biosphere. This is an essential condition of the civilization /2/.


V.I. Vernadsky named the human environment managed by a scientific mind the noosphere, and the transition of the biosphere to the noosphere means a qualitatively new stage in the development of a human society /3/.

The development of scientific knowledge causes the appearance in the 20th century of such sciences as ecology and social ecology. In the sphere of philosophical knowledge the intensive development of ecological ethics takes place.

The concept of «social ecology» in foreign literature was shaped within the framework of a sociological science. In the early twenties the works of American sociologists R. Park, E. Bergess and P. Macansy gave rise to the direction of «social and human ecology», introducing the conduct of human population in the urban environment as an object of the investigation of a new discipline. Having existed for a certain period of time as urbosociology this discipline transformed into social ecology /1/.

Social ecology was recognized as a scientific direction in Russia only in the eighties of the 20th century. The organizational basis of this direction was formed at the First All-Union Conference held in Lvov in 1986. The necessity of uniting the concepts of different sciences in order to solve the urgent problems of interdisciplinary nature was demonstrated. The social aims and needs of the ecological movement, experiencing the demand in comprehensive ecological philosophy and socioecological investigation at regional and local levels, gave rise to the integral direction of investigation in Russia. The wide distribution of the term «sustainable development» in ecology contributed to the development of ecological tourism /4-6/.

All the existing tendencies assume the solution to the problem of regional nature management, the creation of the theory of a balanced interaction of a human society and nature.

Russian Federation is the country which has a great resource potential. In the world economy a state is forced to exist at the cost of natural resources, therefore, it has to take care of their reproduction and rational conservation.

Nowadays alongside with the problems of rational nature management the social problems such as the survival of people in mining settlements distant from large cities remain very important.

Investigations were conducted in cooperation with Mining Institute of the Far Eastern Division of Russian Academy of Sciences in mining settlements of Khabarovsky krai and Chitinskaya oblast’ during the expeditions (Briakan, Mnogovershinny, Solnechny, Sofiysk and Baley).

The aim of investigations is to trace the social dynamics and the strategy of the life of population in mining settlements and to analyze the correlation of social and ecological problems.

The tasks were set subject to the abovementioned aims, i.e. to reveal the general tendencies in the organization of the life-style and to determine the groups on the basis of the comparative analysis of life purposes of people.

The research was carried out by the method of direct observation and non-formulized interview. The scope of questions was highly extensive and individual for every person, but it had a common pattern (a talk on life: How did it happen that you began to work in mining? Where did you study? Why didn’t you leave when you lost you job? What helps you to survive? etc.)

It happened historically that mining settlements and towns were founded in the beginning of the twentieth century. The community Briacan (Polina Osipenko region) was founded in 1930; the community Mnogovershinny (Nikilaevskiyregion) in 1974; the community Solnechny (Komsomolsk region) in 1958; the community Sofiisk (Verhnebureinsky region) in 1875; Baley (Chitinsky region) in 1938.

The foundation of mining settlements should be considered within the scope of the Soviet Government’s conception on the long-term development of Siberia and the Far East that was the part of the uniform policy of the state: economical developing, using of vast sparsely populated territories and the creating on these territories a national economic complex with its own large-scale resource and research-and-production basis and a developed social sphere.

A mining enterprise became a town-making one and the mining operations were the main source of income for the population. The dependence on the successfulness of the activity of a mining enterprise has survived up to the present days; therefore, the community (the population of a mining settlement) is very sensitive to any economical changes.

The reorganization period («Perеstroika») negatively influenced the common weal of the population of the whole country, but if in large cities people had an opportunity to earn money, the search of earnings in mining settlements took the form of «the struggle for survival» due to the one-dimensionality of economic and social ties.

The situation is aggravated by ecological problems: abandoned production constitutes a great threat to the health of population. The transformation of toxic chemical elements such as mercury and other heavy metals causes severe diseases. For example, the community Solnechny ranks the first in morbidity in Khabarovsky krai.

Nowadays large prospecting artels work mainly in shift teams, and the governmental strategy of the long-term development of Siberia and the Far East was left in the past.

While talking with the people it was determined that the larger part of them was the workers of mining enterprises. The percentage of the budgetary sphere workers (managerial employees, teachers, doctors and nurses, etc.) and small undertakers (dealing in foodstuff, clothes and household goods) is rather low.

The main part of the population is more than 50 years old (those who failed to leave in due time and now have to «live their last years»). The young people who leave to get a higher education do not return as a rule. The migrating processes of the young able-bodied population (men of 28 - 35 years old, who are good specialists in mining, are invited to Canada and USA) are observed.

As for the level of education it is necessary to mention that the population with secondary education prevails. There is a small percentage of people with higher education (higher mining, geological, chemical education, i.e. narrow specialists), but due to the deterioration of the living standards a greater part of people with a higher education moved to large cities.

On the basis of the conducted research the conclusion was made that the bankruptcy of mining enterprises led to the degradation of the mode of production. For example, one could observe that on the ruins of a gold-mining factory a group of prospector «washed» gold with cradles as in pre-revolutionary Russia. The social contacts have also become simplified, the transition to the one-dimensionality in the relationships, the life-style and the way of survival. In the areas where it is possible to go fishing and hunting the population survives only thanks to these trades.

It is necessary to point out that social problems depend on ecological ones. In the regions with larger landscape destructions, high levels of pollution of the environment with toxic chemical elements and radioactivity (Baley) it is more difficult for the population to find more adaptive forms of survival.

On the basis of observations two groups were singled out according to the individual emotional spirit: «the strong in spirit» and «living without hope».

«Living without hope» believe that they have to live out their days. For this group of people sullen mood, unwillingness to communicate, in some cases aggressiveness (particularly to visitors), offence at the state and alcoholism are typical. This group prevails in Baley, where the population is in extreme distress.

«The strong in spirit» are trying to struggle for their «place under the sun», they keep their house, go hunting and fishing. The majority of the population of Briacan belongs to this group. The unfavorable situation gave rise to new ways of survival, the unity and mutual support are of great importance. It can be illustrated by the following example, a school-teacher from Briacan organized an ecology-and-sports camp which was built on the bank of the Kerby river. For a few years the children of this region have been hiking during their summer holidays (fishing on a mountain river, having walking tours to waterfalls, mountaineering to high-altitude lakes).

It is this social interaction of people at a «micro level» of social life, but not mass growth of individual (egoistically oriented) activity that became the source of appearance of the most adaptive and expedient forms (models) of a life support of a local community.

There are objective premises for the development of the productive forces used to establish long-term dynamic relations between a society, nature and a man and his environment. But in order to use these productive forces for the developing of nature in the best way it is necessary to develop socioeconomic relations where the aim of the production is not only to make a maximum profit but also to take into consideration the negative ecological consequences. These socioeconomic relations can not exist without a man who finds and rationally allocates resources, provides maximum protection of the natural environment from pollution and further degradation, takes care of the progress and health of people at the same time improving himself.

The mankind is beginning to realize more and more that very often wasted resources are paid by the resources which are becoming more and more depleted - pure water, clean air and etc.

Today the protection of the man’s environment from degradation conforms to the demand for the improvement of the quality of life and natural environment. This interconnection of demands is a prerequisite for the improvement of the quality of life, which is reflected in theoretical comprehension of the relations between a man and nature and in collision of ideas accompanying this comprehension.

The academician D.S. Lihachov notes that people have to become aware of «the relation between a man and nature, this is a relation between two cultures, each of which is in its own way «social», conductive and possesses its own «rules of behavior». Their meeting will take place on peculiar moral bases. Both cultures are the product of historical development, but the development of the human culture has been influenced by nature since old times (since the mankind appeared) and the development of nature with its history of many million years began to experience the influence of a man comparatively not long ago and not everywhere. One (the culture of nature) can exist without the other (human) and the other (human) can not. The dialogue of two cultures is a necessity and a man has to be a tactful, thoughtful and careful interlocutor in this dialogue.


Bibliography

1. Kogai E.A. Essays on social ecology. Kursk. 1997. 155p.

2. Vernadsky V.I. Biosphere. Ideas and drafts. Collection of scientific works. –M., 2001. –M., -244p.

3. Markarovich D.J. Social ecology: textbook / RUFN 1997. – 486p.

4. Social aspects of ecological problems // www.refornline.ru

5. Khrabovchenko V.V. Ecological tourism. – М., 2003. – 206p.


N.V. Lubchenko

I.F. Umanets

The Pacific National University


AIDS DISEASE- CAN THE PROBLEM BE SOLVED?


The AIDS disease really can be called the disease of XX – ΧΧΙ centuries. But for the space of all its existence humanity have been pursued by a lot of terrible diseases that practically are not yielding to AIDS such as trick, plague, typhus, Spanish influenza and many others. In our days the population of the Earth is feared by the mutations of bird influenza because of this virus can be infected people from birds.

People are made that way that they are afraid all unknown, all that does not yield to their explanation.

Each person is afraid to be infected by any disease which is mortal or makes this ah invalid, as it cancer, or AIDS or other diseases. They are afraid of people who ill the AIDS disease without according the fact that it can be ever innocent children who sot such fate fro their parents. They pertain with contempt to that infected people and try not to communicate with them and nobody of this persons muse upon the way they were infected and how they have to live with that. Do you know that children who already were born with this virus can’t be cured and in most cases they are returned in orphanages or simple leaved in maternity hospitals. People try not to take these children in foster families. And this babies can’t understand why they are not taken because they think that they are the same as another children and can’t den stand that they are the carriers of the mortal virus.

The life of adult people with AIDS is not more easily. Some of them are AIDS’ carriers without disease’s advancing and another one are polluted by this virus. Some of them live till an old age, but other sometimes don’t live even a year. But at least adults are tried to be cured. Different vaccines are elaborated with this purpose all around the world.

25 years ago a new terrible disease – AIDS – was registered at the first time.

This “jubilee” is conditional enough because nobody can confirm exactly when and how AIDS disease appeared and who observed the first infix sick patient.

Where it came from? – this question is often assigned. AIDS is a result of person’s HIV – the Human Immunodeficit Virus infection. In spate of the fact that many people reason about geographical origin of this virus it’s improbable to know someday where it appeared from.

But only one thing it’s possible to say with confidence – that it is not a creation of some person’s hands. We know cases when some virus has mutated and have changed from harmless to dangerous for health. May be the similar thing had happened with HIV before it began spread quickly. It is possible that HIV had circulated sometime in some insulated group of people before the epidemic began. People’s transferences had brought to people’s behavior changes, especially of their sexual habits. This moment, probably, was one of the reasons of such quick spreading of the virus, which “appeared” from insulated groups into the general mass of the population.

In 1981 American doctors have unexpectedly Sound unbelievable sharp in creasing of pneumonia among young people that have been caused by pneumojest – a microorganism which usually doesn’t cause the inflammatory processes. At the same time it have been noticed the increase of accidents of sarcoma Caposha – a cancerous disease that was differed from another forms by aggressive current and quickly death. In previous time this disease had been a characteristic for the people of elderly age but now it struck young.

Most of that patients turned out to be homosexual. The facts indicated to a some new disease in whose base pathogenesis lies the suppression of people’s immunity.

In June 5 1981 an American scientist M. Gotlib from Diseases Checking Centre (Atlanta) with his collaborators first time has described a new disease which running with steadily a deep defeat of immune system and connected with steadily progressing casual infection. A careful analysis leaded that American researchers to the conclusion about presence of unknown earlier syndrome which in 1982 has got a name of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS).

The virus that evoked this disease first time was given off in 1983 by the group of professor L. Montanie in Paster’s institute, Paris from AIDS sick man’s lymphatic node. In April 28 1984 at the press conference in Washington D.C. the director of the Institute of Virusology doctor Robert Gallo has declared about his finding the true cause of AIDS disease. He had got successfully the virus from AIDS sick man’s periphery circulatory system. And that two viruses turned out to be identical and in 1987 WHCA decided the united name of Human Immunodeficit Virus (HIV). In Western Africa a new related to the HIV virus was distinguished but it had some immunologic differences with HIV. However both viruses have been named HIV (HIV – I, HIV - II).

Nobody really know when AIDS disease on the Earth. One people talk about 1950th other speaks about more early time, even about previous century’s beginning. There are some versions about HIV appearance. A part of scientists is inclined to consider that a native land of this virus is part of African continent. Other considers that a reason of virus arising is in Arm race and peoples aspiration to create the bacteriological weapon in the underground secret laboratories. The third theory says that HIV was sent to people by chimpanzee.

There are three ways which HIV can be passed from one person to another. The first way is a sexual contact (most of AIDS sick persons are the passive homosexuals that why at first time the disease have ever been nicknamed a “gay cancer”). Second way is realized through some kinds of infection, in clouding intravenous introduction of drugs. And the third was to pass the virus is infection from sick mother to her fetus. The sexual way is dominant.

It is considered that into USA AIDS was brought by “Air Canada” air company’s steward Gaetan Dyuga, who had flights to New York, Los Angeles and some other American cities. He was an active homosexual and he met his partners in bars, clubs, bath-houses. The investigation that was conducted by American doctors has shown that he had infected 40 from the first 250 AIDS victims in USA G. Dyuga have been named “zero” patient. He died in 1984 at age of 32 years from sarcoma Caposha. At the next year the disease was registed in 16 countries by 711 persons and 5 years later there were 113 countries and 72504 persons.

The dimension of AIDS epidemics can be cashier to present in analogy with iceberg. A revealed sick person is a top of this iceberg. Nearest to surfaces undersea part of it – is a group of unknown sick persons with so named AIDS associated diseases. It is approximately 5 or 6 people on each recognized case. The main deep water part of this iceberg is the people without diseases signs but who already have been polluted aid in nearby future it can be waited that they can follow to expect the developments of disease. Scientist’s extermination says that a number of such people in 50-100 times greater than a number of AIDS revealed people.

In prepared by WHCA report have been noted that into the end of 2000th year over 36,1 millions people were sick and over 21,8 millions people had died because of AIDS/HIV disease at the all time of the epidemics. That is more than people had died from tuberculosis and malarias together taken from another information already over 50 millions planet’s inhabitants have been smitten by HIV infection. From 5,3 millions new accidents of infection in 2000th each tenth case have been accounted with children and 4 from 10 with women.

More than 50% on infections and sick persons accounts at the territory of southern part of Africa. In English speaking countries of the Caribbean pool AIDS disease is a main reason of death for people at age from 15 to 44 years. In Eastern Europe is numbered over 700 thousands virus carriers. In USA every next year is fixed 40 thousands new people younger that 25.

In Russia first accident was registered and described in 1986 by professor Pokrovskiy. In the soviet period AIDS epidemics didn’t break out of a reason of having well organized network of vineralogie dispensaries. So far HIV infection in Russia have spreaded among drug addicts basically. But it can follow a second were of HIV infection which will be spreaded with sexual way. By international organization’s estimations it’s over 300 thousands virus carriers in Russia. By Russian statistics there have been revealed over 52 thousand HIV cases in Russia in 2000 and this number is in 2,6 times move than in 1999. And there have been 1135 children among them 427 babies have been born by HIV infected mothers HIV have been registered at 86 administrative territories of the Russia.

Appearing in May 2001 year in the USA Commerce Chamber the secretary of UNO Coffee Anon has noted that the problem can be solved just only by general efforts. “All of us must take pent in this (it)” he has said “because all of us later or earlier will collide with it in one form are another”.

In our days the development of anti AIDS medical preparations is going, also as vaccines for prophylactic measures of virus contamination. But AIDS can be warned.

In Novosibirsk state scientist centre of virusology and biotechnology “Vector” are going the last preparations for testing a new vaccine against AIDS – this ΧΧth century’s plague which was not managed and have gone to our ΧΧΙ century.

This vaccine, scientist says, can form specific T-lymph’s which can recognize sick hutches and destroy them.

The vaccine is already packed in ampoules and put into boxes. But instead of drugstores it getting into the standartization. Institute where a long way of its testing is beginning.

The problem is that there are no any animals except human and chimpanzee which HIV is striking. But “Vector” scientists have invented already how laboratory mouse’s can be used for this tests. And the result have surpassed all their expectations.

The head of laboratory Larisa Krapenko has reported that they got over 90% of antibodies. And in human’s cases the result will be the same it will be very good.

In our days more than hundred different vaccines again HIV are developed in the world. In English-American project even passed the stage of clinical test but its effect have turned out to be zero.

Having many faces, the virus which has an ability to mutate and adapt deceived its enemies. Siberian microbiologist decided to take in HIV virus. The SII of Bioinjenery’s director A. Iliichev has reported that his scientists took the fragments of different viruses. And antigens of this vaccine can protect from all subtypes of virus. It will be interesting for the whole world.

At the first glance the action of Siberian vaccine is simple enough: specific T-lymph’s are forming and they recognizing infected hutches in organism and kills them.

This vaccine is ready for clinical test already. First moment of testing is a test for its harmless. Then the most responsible moment is going when vaccine will be getting by representatives so named groups of the risk. First of all it is doing on drug addicts. For the space of 5 years level of disease in that group will be observed. And if in checking group nobody will fall ill the vaccine will be ready for making.

In their work Siberian microbiologists have taken into account their foreign colleagues failures. But most of all they used their own thirty years experience of work with pathogenic organisms.

Their vaccine they compare with fisher’s net with a very small cells where the chances to get free from it for HIV viruses is small enough.

Also realization of helping and supporting project for AIDS sick and HIV infected people are conducted, checking for blood donors is going. All that and account of the particularities of spreading of epidemics also help to solve the problems and plan the future.

WHCA since 1986 provides practical coordination of the measures again AIDS disease at the national and international levels. The Global AIDS disease’s program is working in 150 countries of the world. Most of countries have created their own national programs for coordination of actions and supporting everyone who work on this field. State services and different non government organizations, banks of donor’s blood, private citizens, representatives of the mass media and other are getting there.

The Global program is recognizing desperate extremity of such cooperation for the success of any action of preventive measures and fisting with AIDS disease.


A.Y. Morosova

V.V. Vetohin

The Pacific State University


TRANSLATION AND MODERN TECHNOLOGIES IN TRANSLATION


We live in the world of information technologies that have come to stay in our life. At the workplace and at home we use modern communication facilities; computer has turned to be an integral part of our life not only in business, but also in everyday life.

Computers came into being around 1945, when a group of two physicists and a mathematician from the University of Pennsylvania created ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). It was big, weighed 30 tons and had innumerable switches, lamps, pipes, and resistors. It used punch cards, needed fastidious manipulations to operate, and it required a lot of time of time to feed it with data. The result was frequent errors, failures and miscalculations. The computer revolution definitely started with the microprocessor (an integrated circuit that put the essential of a computer on a single chip, fully programmable despite its small size). The microcomputer was born and soon took the form of the PC by IBM and the Macintosh by Apple. The ultimate step in this brief history so far is the Internet. It was invented in the late 1950s by the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA). New standards and protocols for transmitting information, together with hypertext, browsers and interfaces have eventually taken computers from a multitude of isolated machines spread all over the world to a single international community of interconnected computers. The appearance of the first computers gave rise to the idea of using them to translate.

We have chosen this theme because as the translators we turn to the dictionaries frequently and the huge dictionaries with a great number of words in them take a lot of time to find a necessary word especially a word-combination. Thus, when we have to find quickly a necessary word we switch on the computer, run the electronic (computer) dictionary and it helps us to translate faster. An ancient mankind dream, an object of research of numerous writers- a computer making a translation from one natural language to another – now it’s the reality. In fact, if we briefly examine the history of computers we will realize how, in a rather short period of time, mankind has achieved considerable technological progress, which has contributed to some extent toward making this dream come true. Now the computer indeed can haltingly translate sentence after sentence, page after page from one language to another with the speed improbable (unbelievable) for the man: one page in a second. And that’s because of the computer translation program installed in this computer. The translation has a long history. In ancient times when the language began to disintegrate on the separate languages appeared the necessity in people knowing few languages and being able to appear in the role of mediator during the communication.

The circle of activity that “translation” notion comprehends is quite wide. The poems, fiction, scientific books from the various spheres of knowledge, diplomatic documents, business papers, politicians’ articles and orators’ speeches, newspapers’ materials are translated from one language to another. So the development of cybernetics made the Machinery Translation possible. Now there is a considerably big choice of program’s packages making easier the translator’s work. Conventionally they are subdivided in two main groups:
  1. Electronic dictionaries;
  2. Machine Translation systems (MT);

Nevertheless we would like to devote this work more to the machine translation systems then to the electronic dictionaries because the work with electronic dictionaries practically don’t differ from using the usual dictionary as they give to the user a chance of quickly search only of one separate word (term) or idiomatic expression; machine translation systems provide halting translation of the texts taking into account morphological, syntactical and semantic connection of the parts of sentence. Today the translation programs can build sensible phrases and during the recent few years the quality of translation improved. However the computer still badly understands grammatical nuances and jargon, thus its main purpose is to translate business letters, handbooks, E-mail letters, Web-pages. It is useful for general understanding of the meaning of the text. The other application of systems is to simplify the translator’s routine work, to carry out for them a word-for-word translation which is easy to touch up.

In this work we will tell about the appearance of the first translation programs, the way of carrying out the translation with the help of computer programs, about who is making these programs and how do they work.

The knowledge of foreign languages can become necessary not only in journey or during the reception of the guests from foreign countries but in our own house, e.g.: while watching the popular Hollywood film, when reading the instructions for use of oversea goods or Web-pages, which the tireless browser is searching for. Thus, it turns out that even without leaving the house we need the translator service. However the necessary help can give us a home computer.

Computer-based translation systems are not rivals to human translators, but they are aids to enable them to increase productivity in technical translation or they provide means of translating material which no human translator has ever attempted. We must distinguish:

1) Machine Translation (MT), which aims to undertake the whole translation process, but whose output must invariably be revised;

2) Computer aids for translators (translation tools), which support the professional translator;

3) Translation systems for the 'occasional' non-translator user, which produce only rough versions to aid comprehension.

Maybe in the future these programs will replace the human mind but now they are still far from perfect.

It is well known that computer presents a good support to a man in routine work. Does the translation of text relate to it? Both yes and no. On the one hand the translator’s work is formal; on the other hand the translation can’t be carried out formally. There is, e.g., technical translation where it is important to know standards of significant accepted abroad. And there is a literary translation when it is required to get the text maximum close to the original. We realize that we are asking the computer to decide when something 'makes sense,' to be able to analyze a person's intentions and objectives hidden in a piece of writing and to produce intelligent thoughts. We are trying to automate purely human processes and simulate them in a computer; how is a computer going to tackle the infinite complexity of language?

Speaking about the computer we should remember that it has no soul. It doesn’t understand the linguistic nuances, hints in the text that is called play upon words. Computer does not have a sense of right and wrong and cannot think, feel or judge. Obviously, we cannot deny some type of intelligence to computers, a limited one when compared to the infinite complexity of the human brain, but we must recognize their superiority when it comes to the technical capacity to process data. In fact, it is thanks to this processing ability that computers are useful for translators, with tools such as electronic dictionaries, translation memories, the Internet or MT in restricted domains. However, computers do not think rationally, do not invent, have no imagination, do not produce abstract thoughts, do not feel, do not have the ability to create or manage abstract ideas expressed in words, do not judge, do not adapt themselves to different situations, and do not know how to solve new problems. Computers are not aware of their own existence or of the outside world, are unable to perform voluntary or creative activities. Computers are machines that are good at performing routine tasks, and translation is everything but routine; it is not a problem of algorithmic nature.

The text also can contain words that have to be understood in the context of people’s way of life in concrete country. e.g. the word “democrat” in English means “politicians coming out for the most state interference in economics” and in Russia- those who come out for the most market liberty. These are different notions.

These are just few examples of peculiarities of the text. There is a great number of such texts and will be always. The computer hardly will understand all of them. Practically it’s not possible. The machine will never understand the color of the nation, will never feel.

Thus the Machine Translation results often require word-processing. Many specialists who need to translate faster use Machine Translation as a support.

Electronic Dictionaries began appear much earlier then MT systems therefore at present there is an extraordinarily wide selection of dictionaries on the market of software- from the simplest (e.g. DIC) to powerful systems including several lexical databases in one programmed casing (e.g. LINGVO). The choice of one or other software depends exclusively on hardware of the computer, financial reasons and concrete conditions in which the translator works.

The potential audience of these programs can be exactly determined - these are pupils and students using the dictionary as one of the method in studying the language, and also these are home-users and business-users who need a universal and simple in employment dictionary-handbook for the translation of business letters and correspondence.

The system of electronic dictionaries LINGVO is the product of ABBYY Company. It’s a powerful professional dictionary which is easy to use. It gives an opportunity to translate the words and word-combinations in 8 directions: from Russian into English, German, French, Italian and vice versa. The system includes 41 dictionaries (e.g. Universal, Economics, Computer, Science, etc.). This division by themes is very useful:

e.g. the word “почки” in Medical subject-matter is translated as “kidneys” but

in Universal -as “buds”.

e.g. the word “карта” in Universal subject-matter is translated as “card, map”, in Computer – also as “chart”, in Science – as “preassembled module”, etc.

e.g. the word “blank” in Universal subject-matter is translated as “белый”, in Economics – as “незаполненный”, in Computer- as “пробел, пропуск”, in Polytechnic- as “болванка, заготовка”.

The work for electronic polyglot can be found in each house. All of us can use it for our own purposes. It’s easy for us to use such programs that have simple user’s interface, numerous auxiliary functions and multimedia resources. It should be easy to use them.

Proceeding from given criteria one can recommend the following MT systems:

“Magic Goody” (from PROMT family),

“Socrat personal 4.1”.

The systems that we have choose are so various in their possibilities that any comparison or test has no sense.

Magic Goody- is the most universal translator.

Socrat personal 4.1- is very simple system for translation of little fragments in texts. The quality of translation isn’t always high but depends not much on the subject of the text. Best of all, this program can translate interactive information, business letters.

In systems of PROMT family is worked out practically unique morphological description for all the languages with which the systems can treat. It contains 800 types of inflections for Russian language, more than 300 types both for German and French, and even for English that don’t belong to inflected languages more than 250 types of inflections are assigned. A great number of endings for every language are kept as wood-structure that provides not only effective way of keeping but an effective algorithm of morphological analyses.

It’s well known that qualitative translation of the text is not just a creative but and labor-intensive work. Qualitative translation is an art. Moreover, even the best translation, as a rule, needs to be editing. What is a good translation? Or what would you think if you hear that a text has been translated well, or badly? A definite answer can hardly be found. It's much easier to find a grammatical or lexical mistake in a sentence than to say whether the translation is good, though grammatically or even lexically incorrect. If, for instance, you come across the sentence “I has a interesting book”, you will easily understand what it means and correct both mistakes, so, on the one hand, the sentence is not correct, but, on the other hand, it is understandable and “correctable”. On the contrary, there may be such mistakes that make the contents incomprehensible.

MT systems have many advantages and at the same time many problems.

The fast-flowing of informational exchange between highly developed industrial countries, the avalanche of science-technical documentation coming from producers of goods and modern technologies require an absolutely new approach to the problem of translation. It’s the only way out: maximum automate the process, living to a man his creative editorial part. The MT systems help in it.

But translation performed by computer is not perfect. Moreover sometimes it is not understandable. Electronic dictionaries help much better than MT systems because their task is only to translate the word or word-combination. In order to translate professionally MT systems should learn to think, to reflect, and to know all the peculiarities, grammatical rules and history of the language. But it’s not possible. People have a soul, mind, thoughts, dreams and feelings which the machine will never possess. The computer was created to help us but not to replace our work. The factor of superiority of human mind over the computer is unquestionable. But the attempts to improve the quality of machine translation will still exist. As a result, the demand for human produced translation is rising, and the translation profession becomes busier than ever. But machine translation is an effective facility for view and search of the information in foreign language and especially it’s the main function when you are working in Internet. The machine translation can tell the main idea of the text. But sometimes it can confuse us completely. Certainly we should remember that an ordinary translator can make a mistake too. But at least he can quickly correct it. We are captivated by the digital era, conscious of the necessity of computers in the translation profession, which increasingly involves working with the latest tools, reducing time and space and gaining immediate access to information. However, we still remain skeptical about how a machine might ever supersede a human translator.


А.Ю. Морозова

Л.Ф. Забродина

Тихоокеанский государственный университет


КЕЙС-МЕТОД КАК ИННОВАЦИЯ

В РЕАЛИЯХ ГУМАНИЗАЦИИ ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ


Метод обучения, известный как кейс-метод (Case study) - метод анализа ситуаций. Суть его в том, что учащимся предлагают осмыслить реальную жизненную ситуацию, описание которой одновременно отражает не только какую-либо практическую проблему, но и актуализирует определенный комплекс знаний, который необходимо усвоить при разрешении данной проблемы. При этом сама проблема не имеет однозначных решений. Как специфический метод обучения, применяется для решения свойственных ему образовательных задач. Основными проблемами кейс-метода являются технологизация и оптимизация, методологическое насыщение и применение в обучении различных типов и форм.

Будучи интерактивным методом обучения, он завоевывает позитивное отношение со стороны студентов, которые видят в нем игру, обеспечивающую освоение теоретических положений и овладение практическим использованием материала. Не менее важно и то, что анализ ситуаций довольно сильно воздействует на профессионализацию студентов, способствует их взрослению, формирует интерес и позитивную мотивацию по отношению к учебе.

Кейс-метод выступает как образ мышления преподавателя, его особая парадигма, позволяющая по-иному думать и действовать, обновить свой творческий потенциал. Здесь основными проблемами выступают широкая демократизация и модернизация учебного процесса, раскрепощение преподавателей, формирование у них прогрессивного стиля мышления, этики и мотивации педагогической деятельности.

Кейс представляет собой некоторую ролевую систему. Под ролью понимают совокупность требований, предъявляемых к лицам, занимающим определенные социальные позиции. Высокая концентрация ролей в кейсе приводит к превращению кейс-метода в его крайнюю ролевую форму - игровой метод обучения, сочетающий в себе в себе игру с тонкой технологией интеллектуального развития и тотальной системой контроля. Действия в кейсе либо даются в описании, и тогда требуется их осмыслить (последствия, эффективность), либо они должны быть предложены в качестве способа разрешения проблемы. Но в любом случае выработка модели практического действия представляется эффективным средством формирования профессиональных качеств обучаемых.

Кейс представляет собой результат отражательной деятельности преподавателя. Общественная жизнь во всем своём многообразии выступает источником сюжета, проблемы и фактологической базы кейса. Другим источником выступает образование. Оно определяет цели и задачи обучения и воспитания, интегрированные в кейс-метод другие методы обучения и воспитания. Наука – это третий источник кейса, как отражательного комплекса. Она задает две ключевые методологии, которые определяются аналитической деятельностью и системным подходом, а также множество других научных методов, которые интегрированы в кейс и процесс его анализа.

Кейсы классифицируются по степени воздействия их основных источников. Здесь можно выделить практические кейсы, которые отражают абсолютно реальные жизненные ситуации; обучающие кейсы, основной задачей которых выступает обучение; научно-исследовательские кейсы, ориентированные на осуществление исследовательской деятельности.

Основная задача практического кейса заключается в том, чтобы детально и подробно отразить жизненную ситуацию. По сути дела этот кейс создает практическую, что называется «действующую» модель ситуации. При этом учебное назначение такого кейса может сводиться к тренингу обучаемых, закреплению знаний, умений и навыков поведения (принятия решений) в данной ситуации. Такие кейсы должны быть максимально наглядными и детальными. Главный его смысл сводится к познанию жизни и обретению способности к оптимальной деятельности.

Хотя каждый кейс несет обучающую функцию, степень выраженности всех оттенков этой функции в различных кейсах различна. Поэтому кейс с доминированием обучающей функции отражает жизнь не один к одному. Во-первых, он отражает типовые ситуации, которые наиболее часты в жизни, и с которыми придется столкнуться специалисту в процессе своей профессиональной деятельности. Во-вторых, в обучающем кейсе на первом месте стоят учебные и воспитательные задачи, что предопределяет значительный элемент условности при отражении в нем жизни. Ситуация, проблема и сюжет здесь не реальные, практические, а такие, какими они могут быть в жизни. Они характеризуются искусственностью, «сборностью» из наиболее важных и правдивых жизненных деталей. Такой кейс мало дает для понимания конкретного фрагмента общества. Однако он обязательно формирует подход к такому фрагменту. Он позволяет видеть в ситуациях типичное и предопределяет способность анализировать ситуации посредством применения аналогии.

Подобное же свойственно и для исследовательского кейса. Его основной смысл заключается в том, что он выступает моделью для получения нового знания о ситуации и поведения в ней. Такой кейс трудно применять в обучении обычных студентов, изучающих, например, типовой курс менеджмента. Обучающая функция его сводится к обучению навыкам научного исследования посредством применения метода моделирования. Строится этот кейс по принципам создания исследовательской модели. Поэтому применять его лучше всего не как метод общеобразовательного обучения, а как метод повышения квалификации, т.е. как метод переподготовки профессионалов. Доминирование исследовательской функции в нём позволяет довольно эффективно использовать его в научно-исследовательской деятельности.

Выделенные выше источники кейса следует называть базовыми, или первичными, поскольку они определяют наиболее значимые факторы воздействия на кейсы. Вместе с тем можно выделить и вторичные источники формирования кейсов, которые носят производный характер от базовых источников.

1. Художественная и публицистическая литература, которая может подсказывать идеи, а в ряде случаев определять сюжетную канву кейса. Великолепные кейсы можно создать на базе известных произведений классической художественной литературы. Например, на основе произведения А. Конан Дойля «The hound of the Baskervilles», который, в зависимости от подхода, к нему может быть эффективным средством изучения либо дисциплин криминалистического цикла, либо истории, либо психологии. Эффективное использование фрагментов из художественной литературы и публицистики, которые благодаря таланту их авторов могут не только украсить кейс, но и сделать его интересным, динамичным, хорошо усваиваемым. Фрагменты из публицистики, включение в кейс оперативной информации из СМИ значительно актуализирует кейс, повышает к нему интерес со стороны студентов. Применение художественной литературы и публицистики придает кейсу культурологическую функцию, стимулирует нравственное развитие личности. На примере французского языка кейс можно создать на основе произведения Антуана де Сент-Экзюпери «Le petite prince».

2. Нельзя недооценивать и значение местного материала. Исходя из нашего опыта, наиболее насыщенное и интересное обсуждение кейсов о деятельности разных компаний происходит тогда, когда компания и ее продукция имеют определенное личное значение для студентов. Кейс о компании «Самсунг» идет лучше всего тогда, если в группе есть люди, которые дома имеют товары, выработанные этой фирмой. Кейс о развитии лыжного туризма на Дальнем Востоке с наибольшим интересом дискутируется фанатами горных лыж. Если таких людей в группе нет, то кейсы воспринимаются как что-то далекое, непонятное, отстраненное от студентов.

Вывод очевиден: критическая масса кейсов, которые используются в программах и курсах, может базироваться на местном материале. И в данном случае речь идет не о том, что кейсы должны освещать только опыт национальных предприятий. Имеются в виду те компании и те товары или услуги, которые присутствуют на национальном рынке в том или ином виде.

Отечественные студенты чувствуют себя увереннее, если они хорошо знают среду и контекст, в котором происходят события, описанные в кейсах, им значительно тяжелее обсуждать американскую среду, поведение и мотивы американских или других иностранных потребителей. Преподаватель тоже чувствует себя увереннее, дирижируя обсуждением кейса, который базируется на местном материале, поскольку он лучшее знает и область, и самое предприятие. В конце концов, при обсуждении таких кейсов существует уникальная возможность пригласить руководителя предприятия.

3. Научность и строгость кейсу придают статистические материалы, сведения о состоянии рынка, социально-экономические характеристики предприятия и т.п. При этом данные материалы могут играть роль непосредственного инструмента для диагностики ситуации, а могут выступать в качестве материала для расчета показателей, которые наиболее существенны для понимания ситуации. При использовании статистических материалов студенту необходимо осмыслить эти материалы, ответив на несколько вопросов: «Какую роль играют эти материалы в характеристике ситуации?», «Что в самих материалах непосредственно характеризует ситуацию?», «Как рассчитываются или выделяется эти характеристики?» и т.д. Статистические материалы размещают либо в самом тексте кейса, либо в приложении.

4. Добротные материалы к кейсу можно получить посредством анализа научных статей, монографий и научных отчетов, посвященных той или иной проблеме. Если произведения публицистики и художественной литературы придают эмоциональную насыщенность и предметную осязаемость кейсу, то произведения науки придают ему большую строгость и корректность. Хорошая научная статья обычно характеризуется углубленным пониманием какого-либо вопроса, а научная монография дает системную, всестороннюю характеристику предмета исследования. Что касается научного отчета, то его особенностью является актуальность и новизна материала. Эти продукты науки далеко не всегда описывают и объясняют ситуацию. Поэтому они нуждаются в специальном осмыслении в аспекте ситуации. Наиболее интересные научные публикации могут выполнять в кейс-методе две функции: первая заключается в том, что научные публикации и их фрагменты могут выступить составляющими кейсов посредством включения в их ткань, а вторая - в том, что они могут быть включены в список литературы, необходимой для понимания кейса.

5. Неисчерпаемым кладезем материала для кейсов является Интернет с его ресурсами. Этот источник отличается значительной масштабностью, гибкостью и оперативностью.

Методологически кейс-метод принципиально отличается от аналогичного содержания обучения, которое не использует кейс-метод. Это различие проявляется, прежде всего, на уровне применяемых дидактических принципов.

Кейс-метод опирается на совокупность определенных дидактических принципов:

- индивидуальный подход к каждому студенту, учёт его потребностей и стиля обучения, что предполагает сбор максимума информации о студентах еще до занятий;

- максимальное предоставление свободы в обучении (возможность выбора преподавателя, дисциплин, формы обучения, типа задач и способа их выполнения);

- обеспечение студентов достаточным количеством наглядных материалов, которые касаются задач (статьи в печати, видео-, аудиокассеты и СD-диски, продукция компаний, деятельность которых анализируется);

- не загружать студента большим объемом теоретического материала, концентрироваться лишь на основных положениях;

- обеспечение доступности преподавателя для студента, который должен иметь возможность в любое время обратиться к нему;

- формирование у студентов навыков самоменеджмента, умения работать с информацией;

- акцентирование внимания на развитии сильных сторон студента.

Вместе с тем существует ряд проблем, которые требуют решения:

· применение комплексного подхода к выбору форм и методов обучения с целью создания привлекательной для студентов структуры практической подготовки;

· междисциплинарная и межкафедральная согласованность применяемых форм обучения;

· поиск или разработка и использование разных методических приемов с целью обеспечения эффективности и результативности процесса обучения;

· повышение педагогического мастерства, обретение преподавателями навыков и стиля поведения тренера-инструктора.

Кейс-метод выступает и специфическим практическим методом организации учебного процесса, методом дискуссий с точки зрения стимулирования и мотивации учебного процесса, а также методом лабораторно-практического контроля и самоконтроля. С позиции бинарных методов он совмещает в себе многие виды наглядности. Но, скорее всего, его следует считать наглядно-проблемным, наглядно-практическим и наглядно-эвристическим одновременно, поскольку в нем дается наглядная характеристика практической проблемы и демонстрация поиска способов её решения. Наконец по критерию практичности он представляет собой чаще всего практически-проблемный метод.

Кейс-метод можно представить в методологическом контексте как сложную систему, в которую интегрированы другие, более простые методы познания. В него входят моделирование, системный анализ, проблемный метод, мысленный эксперимент, методы описания, классификации, игровые методы, которые выполняет в кейс-методе свои роли.

Рассмотрим мысленное экспериментирование. Под мысленным экспериментом обычно понимается специфическая разновидность эксперимента, которая оперирует не реальными объектами, а некоторыми мысленными конструктами этих объектов. Достоинство мысленного эксперимента в том, что он не наносит ущерб реальному практическому объекту, а недостаток в его отдаленности от практики, что ослабляет его функцию критерия. Мысленное экспериментирование представляет собой важнейший методологический атрибут кейс-метода. Оно позволяет проверять гипотезы о факторах, определяющих ситуацию, о важнейших или второстепенных аспектах проблем, об эффективности предлагаемых решений и т.д. Образовательное и воспитывающее значение мысленного эксперимента заключается в том, что он учит видению причинно-следственных связей, путей развертывания будущего, скрытой динамики и т.д. Фраза «Представьте себе, что….» совершенно незаменима при использовании мысленного экспериментирования.

Методы описания предполагают формирование некоторой системы фактов, которые характеризуют ситуацию. При этом само описание ситуации в кейсе таково, что оно представляет собой подобие художественно-публицистического описания ситуации, при котором наиболее существенное маскируется менее существенным. Поэтому студент вынужден разбирать своеобразную головоломку, отделяя существенное от несущественного. При этом он должен после прочтения кейса дать его системное описание, сформировать свою трактовку приведенных в нем фактов, оценок, предположений, умолчаний и т.д.

Педагогический потенциал кейс-метода гораздо больше, чем у традиционных методов обучения. Преподаватель и студент здесь постоянно взаимодействуют, выбирают формы поведения, сталкиваются друг с другом, мотивируют свои действия, аргументируют их моральными нормами.

Наличие в структуре кейс-метода споров, дискуссий, аргументации довольно сильно тренирует участников обсуждения, учат соблюдению норм и правил общения. Еще больше нагрузка на преподавателя, который должен быть достаточно эмоциональным в течение всего процесса обучения, разрешать и не допускать конфликты, создавать обстановку сотрудничества и конкуренции одновременно, и самое главное, обеспечивать соблюдение личностных прав студента. Эмоциональный накал при этом методе обучения достигает нередко такой степени, что группа напоминает кипящую плазму.

Кейс-метод становится модным. Но вместе с тем, он начинает восприниматься преподавателями, которые не обладают достаточной методологической культурой, весьма поверхностно, нередко он рассматривается не как средство творческого обучения, а способ преподавательской бездеятельности. Так если подготовка классической лекции занимает довольно много времени, требует мобилизации интеллектуальных ресурсов преподавателя, серьезного творческого переосмысления огромных массивов информации, то подготовка некоторого методического суррогата, который преподаватель называет кейсом, не составит особых усилий.

Особенность работы преподавателя, практикующего кейс-метод, заключается в том, что он не только реализует максимально свои способности, но и развивает их. Основное содержание деятельности преподавателя включает в себя выполнение нескольких функций — обучающей, воспитывающей, организующей и исследовательской. Они воспринимаются в единстве, хотя у многих одни довлеют над другими. Если в реальной вузовской деятельности эти функции довольно часто реализуются раздельно, то в процессе преподавания кейсов наблюдается их синкретическое, органическое единство.


М.О. Nosenko

N.G. Grinevich

Pacific state university