Geum.ru

Курсовой проект по предмету Иностранные языки

  • 21. Homonyms in Modern English
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    In the discussion of polysemy and context we have seen that one of the ways of discriminating between different meanings of a word is the interdivitation of these meanings in terms of their synonyms, e.g. the two meanings of the adjective handsome are synonymously interdivted as handsome-'beautiful' (usually about men) and handsome-'considerable, ample' (about sums, sizes, etc.).it seems impossible to" speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a whole as it is only the denotation component that may be described as identical or similar. If we analyse words that are usually considered synonymous, e.g. to die, to pass away; to begin, to commence, etc., we find that the connotation component or, to be more exact, the stylistic reference of these words is entirely different and it is only the similarity of the denotation meaning that makes them synonymous. The words, e.g. to die, to walk, to smile, etc., may be considered identical as to their stylistic reference or emotive charge, but as there is no similarity of denotation meaning they are never felt as synonymous words.it does not seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criterion of synonymy as identity of meaning is very rare even among monosynaptic words. In fact, cases of complete synonymy are very few and are, as a rule, confined to technical nomenclatures where we can find monosynaptic terms completely identical in meanings as, for example, spirant and fricative in phonetics. Words in synonymic sets are in general differentiated because of some element of opposition in each member of the set. The word handsome, e.g., is distinguished from its synonym beautiful mainly because the former implies the beauty of a male person or broadly speaking only of human beings, whereas beautiful is opposed to it as having no such restrictions in its semantic structure. [2] Thus it seems necessary to modify the traditional definition and to word it as follows: synonyms are words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings. Synonymous relationship is observed only between similar denotational meanings of phonemically different words. Differentiation of synonyms may be observed in different semantic components-denotational or connotation.should be noted, however, that the difference in denotation meaning cannot exceed certain limits and is found only as a variation of some common denotational component. The verbs look, seem, appear, e.g., are worked as members of one synonymic set as all three of them possess a common denotational semantic component "to be in one's work. Semantic similarity of affixation morphemes is treated in more detail in the chapter about Word-Formation in Prof. Ginsburgs textbook on lexicology, judgment, but not necessarily in fact" and come into comparison in this meaning (cf. he seems (looks) (appears) tired). A more detailed analysis shows that there is a certain difference in the meaning of each verb: seem suggests a personal opinion based on evidence (e.g. nothing seems right when one is out of sorts); look implies that opinion is based on a visual division (e.g. the city looks its worst in March), appear sometimes suggests a distorted division (e.g. the setting sun made the spires appear ablaze). Thus similarity of denotational meaning of all members of the synonymic series is combined with a certain difference in the meaning of each member. [3]follows that relationship of synonymy implies certain differences in the denotational meaning of synonyms. In this connection a few words should be said about the traditional classification of vocabulary units into ideographic and stylistic synonyms. This classification proceeds from the assumption that synonyms may differ either in the denotational meaning (ideographic synonyms) or the connotation meaning, i.e. stylistic reference (stylistic synonyms). This assumption cannot be accepted as synonymous words always differ in the denotational component irrespective of the identity or difference of stylistic reference. The stylistic reference in the synonymous verbs seem, appear, look may be regarded as identical though we observe some difference in their denotational component. Difference in the denotational semantic component is also found in synonymous words possessing different connotational components. The verbs see and behold, e.g., are usually treated as stylistic synonyms; see is stylistically neutral and behold is described as bookish or poetic. It can be readily observed, however, that the difference between the two verbs is not confined solely to stylistic reference. Though they have a common denotational component 'to take cognizance of something by physical (or mental) vision', there is a marked difference in their comparable meanings. The verb behold suggests only 'looking at that which is seen', e.g. "behold them sitting in their glory" (Shelley), The verb see denotes 'have or use power of sight' (e.g. the blind cannot see), 'understand' (e.g. don't you see my meaning?), have knowledge or experience of (e.g. he has seen a good deal in his long life) and others., the interrelation of the denotational and the connotational meaning of synonyms is rather complex. Difference or rather variation of the denotational component does not imply difference in either the stylistic reference or the emotive charge of members of synonymic series. Difference of the connotational semantic component is invariably accompanied by some variation of the denotational meaning of synonyms. Therefore it would be more consistent to subdivide synonymous words into purely ideographic (denotational) and ideographic-stylistic synonyms. It should be pointed out that neither criterion the traditional definition of synonyms modified version suggested here provide for any objective criterion of similarity of meaning. Judgment as to semantic similarity is based solely on the linguistic intuition of the analyst. [4]is sometimes argued that the meaning of two words is identical if they can denote the same referent, in other words, if an object or a certain class of objects can always be denoted by either of the two words. For example in the sentence "Washington is the capital of the United States"-"Washington" and "the capital of the United States" have obviously the same referent, but there is no linguistic relationship of synonymy between the two lexical units.attempts have been made to introduce into the definition of synonymy the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic contexts. It is argued that for the linguistic similarity of meaning implies that the words are synonymous if either of them can occur in the same context. In this case the relationship of synonymy is defined as follows: "If A and B have almost identical environment except chiefly for sentences which contain both, we say they are synonyms" (cf. eye-doctor, oculist).well-known definition also proceeding from the contextual approach is the definition of synonyms as words which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration either in the denotational or connotational meaning.contextual approach also invites criticism as words interchangeable in any given context are rarely found. This fact may be explained as follows: firstly, words synonymous in some lexical contexts may display no synonymy in others. As one of the English scholars aptly remarks, the comparison of the sentences "the rainfall in April was abnormal" and "the rainfall in April was exceptional" may give us grounds for assuming that exceptional and abnormal are synonymous. The same adjectives in a different context are by no means synonymous, as we may see by comparing "my son is exceptional" and "my son is abnormal". [5], it is evident that interchangeability alone cannot serve as a criterion of synonymy. Werner safely assumes that synonyms are words interchangeable in some contexts. But the reverse is certainly not true as semantically different words of the same part of speech are, as a rule, interchangeable in quite a number of contexts. For example, in the sentence "I saw a little girl playing in the garden" the adjective little may be formally replaced by a number of semantically different adjectives, e.g. ditty, tall, English, etc.a more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: Synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts., the degree of synonymy of words may be calculated by the number of contexts in which these words are interchangeable. The simplest technique of such semantic analysis is substitution in various contexts. It is argued that two synonymous adjectives, e.g. deep and profound, could be analyzed in relation to each other by ascertaining how far they are interchangeable in different contexts, say, in combination with water, voice, remark, relief; what changes of denotational meaning and emotive charge occur when they are interchanged (cf. deep relief-profound relief); what is their proper antonym in each of these combinations (shallow, high, superficial); in how many of the possible contexts they are interchangeable without any considerable alteration of the denotational meaning, etc.English word-stock is extremely rich. Synonymic accounted for by abundant borrowing. '" English Quite a number of words in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or French origin. For instance, out of thirteen words making up the set see, behold, descry, espy, work, survey, contemplate, observe, notice, remark, note, discern, perceive only see and behold can be traced back to Old English (OE. seen and beheading), all others are either French or Latin borrowings. [6], a characteristic pattern of English synonymic sets is the pattern including the native and the borrowed words. Among the best investigated are the so called double-scale patterns: native versus Latin (e.g. bodily-corporal, brotherly- fraternal); native versus Greek or French (e.g. answer- reply, fiddle-violin). In most cases the synonyms differ in their stylistic reference, too. The native word is usually colloquial (e.g. bodily, brotherly), whereas the borrowed word may as a rule be described as bookish or highly literary (e.g. corporal, fraternal).by side with this pattern there exists in English a subsidiary one based on a triple-scale of synonyms: native- French and Latin or Greek [e.g. begin (start)-commence (Fr.)-initiate (/.); rise-mount (Fr.)-ascend (/,)]. In most of these sets the native synonym is felt as more colloquial, the Latin or Greek one is characterized by bookish stylistic reference, whereas the French stands between the two extremes. There are some minor points of interest that should be discussed in connection with the problem of synonymy. It has often been found that subjects prominent in the interests of a community tend to attract a large number of synonyms. It is common knowledge that in Beowulf there are 37 synonyms for hero or prince and at least a dozen for battle and fight. In Modern American English there are at least twenty words used to denote money: beans, bucks, the chips, do-re-mi, the needful, wherewithal, etc. This linguistic phenomenon is usually described as the law of synonymic attraction , it has also been observed that when a particular word is given a transferred meaning its synonyms tend to develop along parallel lines. We know that in early New English the verb overlook was employed in the meaning of 'look with an evil eye upon, cast a spell over' from which there developed the meaning 'deceive' first recorded in 1596. Exactly half a century later we find oversee a synonym of overlook employed in the meaning of 'deceive'. This form of analogy active in the semantic development of synonyms is referred to as "radiation of synonyms".

  • 22. Humanity in J. Conrad's and W. Somerset's creativity
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. The Italian Renaissance had rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, which was then beginning to evolve apart from the old mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages. The Italians were particularly inspired by Seneca (a major tragic playwright and philosopher, the tutor of Nero) and Plautus (its comic clichés, especially that of the boasting soldier had a powerful influence on the Renaissance and after). However, the Italian tragedies embraced a principle contrary to Seneca's ethics: showing blood and violence on the stage. In Seneca's plays such scenes were only acted by the characters [18, 123]. But the English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London and Giovanni Florio had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. It is also true that the Elizabethan Era was a very violent age and that the high incidence of political assassinations in Renaissance Italy (embodied by Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince) did little to calm fears of popish plots. As a result, representing that kind of violence on the stage was probably more cathartic for the Elizabethan spectator. Following earlier Elizabethan plays such as Gorboduc by Sackville & Norton and The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd that was to provide much material for Hamlet, William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school education. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins [23, 145]. Though most dramas met with great success, it is in his later years (marked by the early reign of James I) that he wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, a tragicomedy that inscribes within the main drama a brilliant pageant to the new king. Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet which made significant changes to Petrarch's model.

  • 23. Interpolation, approximation and differential equations solvers
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

     

    1. J. C. Butcher, Numerical methods for ordinary differential equations, ISBN 0471967580
    2. George E. Forsythe, Michael A. Malcolm, and Cleve B. Moler. Computer Methods for Mathematical Computations. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977. (See Chapter 6.)
    3. Ernst Hairer, Syvert Paul Nørsett, and Gerhard Wanner. Solving ordinary differential equations I: Nonstiff problems, second edition. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 3-540-56670-8.
    4. William H. Press, Brian P. Flannery, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling. Numerical Recipes in C. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988. (See Sections 16.1 and 16.2.)
    5. Kendall E. Atkinson. An Introduction to Numerical Analysis. John Wiley & Sons - 1989
    6. F. Cellier, E. Kofman. Continuous System Simulation. Springer Verlag, 2006. ISBN 0-387-26102-8.
    7. Gaussian Quadrature Rule of Integration - Notes, PPT, Matlab, Mathematica, Maple, Mathcad at Holistic Numerical Methods Institute
    8. Burden, Richard L.; J. Douglas Faires (2000). Numerical Analysis (7th Ed. ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-38216-9.
  • 24. Intonation system of English in the process of historical development
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    has a special branch, intonology, whose domain is the larger units of connected speech: intonation groups, phrases and even phonetic passages or blocks of discourse.descriptions of intonation show that phonological facts of intonation system are much more open to question than in the field of segmental phonology. Descriptions differ according to the kind of meaning they regard intonation is carrying and also according to the significance they attach to different parts of the tone-unit. J. D. O'Connor and G. F. Arnold assert that a major function of intonation is to express the speaker's attitude to the situation he/she is placed in, and they attach these meanings not to pre-head, head and nucleus separately, but to each of ten 'tone-unit types' *as they combine with each of four sentence types, statement, question, command and exclamation.. Halliday supposes that English intonation contrasts are grammatical. He argues first that there is a neutral or unmarked tone choice and then explains all other choices as meaningful by contrast. Thus if one takes the statement I don't know the suggested intonational meanings are: Low Fall - neutral. Low Rise - non-committal, High Rise - contradictory, Fall-Rise - with reservation, Rise-Fall - with commitment. Unlike J. D. O'Connor and G. F. Arnold, M. Halliday attributes separate significance to the prе-nuclear choices, again taking one choice as neutral and the other (s) as meaningful by contrast.. Crystal presents an approach based on the work "that any explanation of intonational meaning cannot be arrived at by seeing the issues solely in either grammatical or attitudinal terms". He ignores the significance of pre-head and head choices and deals only with terminal tones.is still impossible to classify, in any practical analysis of intonation, all the fine shades of feeling and attitude which can be conveyed by slight changes in pitch, by lengthening or shortening tones, by increasing or decreasing the loudness of the voice, by changing its quality, and in various other ways. On the other hand it is quite possible to make a broad classification of intonation patterns which are so different in their nature that they materially: change the meaning of the utterance and to make different pitches and degrees of loudness in each of them. Such an analysis resembles the phonetic analysis of sounds of a language whereby phoneticians establish the number of significant sounds it uses. [4,85]distinctive function of intonation is realized in the opposition of the same word sequences which differ in certain parameters of the intonation pattern. Intonation patterns make their distinctive contribution at intonation group, phrase and text levels. Thus in the phrases:Mary, comes let me à know at once (a few people are expected to come but it is Mary who interests the speaker)- >Mary comes let me à know at once (no one else but Mary is expected to come) the intonation patterns of the first intonation groups are opposed. In the opposition I enjoyed it - I enjoyed it the pitch pattern operates over the whole phrase adding in the second phrase the notion that the speaker has reservations (implying a continuation something like 'but it could have been a lot better').section of the intonation pattern, any of its three constituents can perform the distinctive function thus being phonological units. These units form a complex system of intonemes, tonemes, accentemes, chronemes, etc. These phonological units like phonemes consist of a number of variants. The terminal tonemes, for instance, consist of a number of allotones, which are mutually non-distinctive. The principal allotone is realized in the nucleus alone. The subsidiary allotones are realized not only in the nucleus, but also in the pre-head and in the tail, if there are any, cf.:. No, Tom. Oh, no, Mary.most powerful phonological unit is the terminal tone. The opposition of terminal tones distinguishes different types of sentence. The same sequence of words may be interpreted as a different syntactical type, i. e. a statement or a question, a question or an exclamation being pronounced with different terminal tones, e. g.:saw it (statement) - Tom saw it? (general question)'t you enjoy it? (general question) - Didn't you enjoy it? (exclamation)you be quiet? (request) - Will you be quiet? (command).number of terminal tones indicates the number of intonation groups. Sometimes the number of intonation groups may be important for meaning. For example, the sentence My sister, who lives in the South, has just arrived may mean two different things. In oral speech it is marked by using two or three intonation groups. If the meaning is: 'my only sister who happens to live in the South', then the division would be into three intonation groups: My sister, who lives in the South, has just arrived. On the other hand, if the meaning is 'that one of my two sisters, who lives in the South', the division is into two intonation groups.with the increase of loudness terminal tones serve to single out the semantic centre of the utterance. By semantic centre we mean the information centre which may simultaneously concentrate the expression of attitudes and feelings. The words in an utterance do not necessarily all contribute an equal amount of information, some are more important to the meaning than others. This largely depends on the context or situation in which the intonation group or a phrase is said. Some words are predisposed by their function in the language to be stressed. In English lexical (content) words are generally accented while grammatical (form) words are more likely to be unaccented although words belonging to both of these groups may be unaccented or accented if the meaning requires it.us consider the sentence It was an unusually rainy day. As the beginning of, say, a story told on the radio the last three words would be particularly important, they form the semantic centre with the nucleus on the word day. The first three words play a minor part. The listener would get a pretty clear picture of the story's setting if the first three words were not heard and the last three were heard clearly. If the last three words which form the semantic centre were lost there would be virtually no information gained at all. [5,48]same sentences may be said in response to the question What sort of day was it? In this case the word day in the reply would lose some of its force because the questioner already possesses the information that it might otherwise have given him. In this situation there are only two important words - unusually rainy - and they would be sufficient as a complete answer to the question. The nucleus will be on the word rainy. Going further still, in reply to the question Did it rain yesterday? the single word unusually would bear the major part of the information, would be, in this sense, more important than all the others and consequently would be the nucleus of the intonation pattern.words may be also important to the meaning if the context makes them so. The word was, for instance, has had little value in the previous examples, but if the sentences were said as a contradiction in the reply to It wasn 't a rainy day yesterday, was it?, then was would be the most important word of all and indeed, the reply might simply be It was, omitting the following words as no longer worth saying. In this phrase the word was is the nucleus of the semantic centre.variations of the accentuation achieved by shifting the position of the terminal tone serve a striking example of how the opposition of the distribution of terminal tones is fulfilling the distinctive function.the phrase I don't want you to read anything has the low-falling terminal tone on the word anything, it means that for this or other reason the person should avoid reading. If the same word sequence is pronounced with the falling-rising tone on the same word, the phrase means that the person must have a careful choice in reading.should be pointed out here that the most important role of the opposition of terminal tones is that of differentiating the attitudes and emotions expressed by the speaker. The speaker must be particularly careful about the attitudes and emotions he expresses since the hearer is frequently more interested in the speaker's attitude or feeling than in his words - that is whether he speaks nicely or nastily. For instance, the special question Why? may be pronounced with the low falling tone sounding rather detached, sometimes even hostile. When pronounced with the low-rising tone it is sympathetic, friendly, interested. [6,48]the other sections of the intonation pattern differentiate only attitudinal or emotional meaning, e. g.: being pronounced with the high рге-head, Hello sounds more friendly than when pronounced with the low pre-head, cf.:

  • 25. Legal system
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Also it is no trifling education that is needed for successful competition in this profession. The ramifications of the law are infinite, and the successful lawyer must be versed in all subjects. The law is not a mere conglomeration of decisions and statutes; otherwise "Pretty Poll" might pose as an able advocate. A mind unadapted to investigation, unable to see the reasons for legal decisions, is as unreliable at the bar as is a color-blind person in the employ of a signal corps. The woman lawyer who demands an indemnity against failure must offer as collateral security not only the ordinary school education, but also a knowledge of the world and an acquaintance with that most abstruse of all philosophieshuman nature. She must needs cultivate all the common sense and tact with which nature has endowed her, that she may adjust herself to all conditions. She must possess courage to assert her position and maintain her place in the presence of braggadocio and aggressiveness, with patience, firmness, order and absolute good nature; a combativeness which fears no Rubicon; a retentiveness of memory which classifies and keeps on file minutest details; a self-reliance which is the sin qua non of success; a tenacity of purpose and stubbornness of perseverance which gains ground, not by leaps, but by closely contested hair breadths; a fertility of resource which can meet the "variety and instantaneousness" of all occasions; an originality and clearness of intellect like that of Portia, prompt to recognize the value of a single drop of blood; a critical acumen to understand and discriminate between the subtle technicalities of law and an aptness to judge rightly of the interpretation of principles.

  • 26. Lexical and grammatical peculiarities of scientific-technical texts
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Translation is the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and the production, in another language, of an equivalent text that communicates the same message. Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context, the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, their idioms and the like. Consequently, as has been recognized at least since the time of the translator Martin Luther, one translates best into the language that one knows best. Traditionally translation has been a human activity, though attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate the translation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computers as an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation). [1; 48] Perhaps the most common misconception about translation is that there exists a simple “word-for-word” relation between any two languages, and that translation is therefore a straightforward and mechanical process. On the contrary, historical differences between languages often dictate differences of expression. Hence, source and target texts may differ significantly in length. In addition, translation is always fraught with uncertainties as well as the potential for inadvertent “spilling over” of idioms and usages from one language into the other, producing linguistic hybrids, for example, "Franglais" (French-English), "Spanglish" (Spanish-English) and "Poglish" (Polish-English). [2; 31]

  • 27. Marketing in tourism
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Consumer involvement is the perceived personal importance and interest consumers attach to the acquisition, consumption, and disposition of a good, service, or an idea. As their involvement increases, consumers have a greater motivation to attend to, comprehend, and elaborate on information pertaining to the purchase. (Mowen & Minor, 1998, p.64). In the case of low involvement, consumer works a purchase as unimportant and regards the outcome of his or her decision as inconsequential. Because the purchase carries a minimal degree of personal relevance or identification, the individual feels there is little or nothing to be gained from attending to the details of a purchase. (Hanna & Wozniak, 2001, p.290). High involvement purchases are those that are important to the consumer either from a financial, social, or psychological point of works. The purchase is characterized by personal relevance and identification with the outcome. (Hanna & Wozniak, 2001, p.291). An individual anticipates a potentially significant gain from expending time and effort in comparison-shopping before buying. For example, a girl purchasing an expensive ball dress has a high degree of personal identification. Therefore, a high level of felt involvement can increase an individuals willingness to search for, process, and transmit information about a purchase.

  • 28. Marketing Research Project for a Russian Company
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

     

    1. We revealed a negative correlation between income per head and consumption of pastas. The biggest part of buyers were representatives of the lower class or the lower middles (31% and 33% respectively). 27% were higher middles, and 16% belonged to the high class. Since only pasta buyers were asked, the average consumption of pasta is lower than our research show, but nevertheless we can get an idea of structure of consumption of pastas. According to our calculations, the consumption of pastas per head is:
    2. Lower class- 0.6 kg/month
    3. Lower middles 0.55 kg/month
    4. Higher middles 0.32 kg/month
    5. High class - 0.13 kg/month
    6. Only 12% of the respondents claimed they consume more than 1.3 kg of pastas a month per head. We can treat the lower class and the lower middles as the heavy half and the higher middles and the high class as the light half.
    7. 36 % of respondents claimed they prefer corns to other pastas, 22%like spirals, 26% like shells, 7% prefer vermicelli, and 2% usually buy spaghetti.
    8. 46% of buyers claimed the price to be the most important factor which influenced their purchase decision, for 37% of consumers the quality is the priority. 5% think they should buy only automatically packed pastas, and 3% claimed some specific features as taste (we should assume that good taste is a part of quality and that is why this group is small). There were also 4% of loyals who are driven by a familiar brand name while making their decision.
    9. Usually people plan to purchase pastas in advance (87%). In spite of this, the decision about the particular sort and brand name (if there is any) is usually impulse (63%).
    10. The crisis dramatically affected the market of pastas. We talked to the salesmen of pastas to shed light on this question. All of the salesmen we talked to said that before the crisis people preferred imported pastas to domestic ones. Now domestic pastas of low quality (37%) and middle quality (45%) are bought (according to our survey, not to salesmen). We expected changes to happen, but we did not expect them to be so huge, though LBS Corporations manufacture of pastas very notably increased since before August, 17th.
    11. The most desirable size of package is 1kg (57%), then goes a 500g package (38%).
    12. People almost do not purchase domestic automatically packed pastas. Their price is almost equal to the price of imported pastas.
    13. 72% of respondents said that they would prefer automatically packed pasta to manually packed one. 35% would do it because they are afraid of being given light weight, 19% do not like unawareness about the manufacturer, and 11% think the quality is poor.
      In spite of this, people are not willing to pay much for packaging, though 82% of them agree that they would prefer automatically packed pasta to manually packed one. Only 9% were willing to pay more than 1 ruble for a 500g package, 24 % would pay from 0.6 to 1 ruble for a 500g package, 28% would pay about 0.5 ruble, and 10% would pay nothing at all (some even said they would prefer manually packed pastas because they can use the packaging).
    14. People would not like to buy pastas in cardboard or other non-glassy packaging. Actually all of the respondents said they need to look at the product to estimate its quality.
    15. Though people agree that imported pastas tend to be better than the domestic ones, most of them (67%) would not like to pay more than 25% more for imported pastas.
    16. People do not worry a lot about the brand name. There are no hard-core loyals. There are a few split loyals (11%). They are among the people who still prefer imported pastas. The most popular brands are: Nordic (27% of imported pastas purchased were of this brand), Big (21 %). Non of the respondents was a loyal of any domestic trademarks.
    17. Actually all people said that it is bad that Russia substitutes natural resources for industrial goods, but only 4% said they often think about it when they make their purchase decision, 7% said they sometimes do, 5% seldom think of this.
    18. Since it was difficult for the respondents to answer weather they used to consume more or less pastas before the crisis (more than 50% could not answer at all or hesitated), we used the salesmen as our reserve source of information. According to them, the overall consumption of pastas decreased by approximately 15%, and consumption of imported pastas has just slummed- by more than 50%.
  • 29. Media in China
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Talk radio in China allows a much freer exchange of works than other media formats. In effect, talk radio has shifted the paradigm from authorities addressing the people to people addressing the authorities. For example, until 1991 the 14 million inhabitants of Shanghai were served by only one radio station Radio Shanghai which primarily aired predictable, pro-government propaganda. In 1992, East Radio was established with a format that catered to citizens' individual concerns and deemphasized propaganda. Competition between the two Shanghai radio stations has resulted in much livelier coverage by both including call-in programs that air discussions of politics, lifestyle, and previously forbidden social subjects. Because callers usually are not required to identify themselves, such discussions are far more candid than would be possible on television. Party officials regularly give guidance to the hosts and producers of talk-radio programs, but such guidance is usually ignored without penalty because party officials do not want to create problems by moving against these highly popular programs.

  • 30. Nouns
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

     

    • Beard, R. (1992) Number. In W. Bright (ed.) International Encyclopedia of Linguistics.
    • Corbett, G. (2000). Number. Cambridge University Press.
    • Greenberg, Joseph H. (1972) Numeral classifiers and substantival number: Problems in the genesis of a linguistic type. Working Papers on Language Universals (Stanford University) 9. 1-39.
    • Laycock, Henry. (2005) 'Mass nouns, Count nouns and Non-count nouns' Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.
    • Laycock, Henry. (2006) Words without Objects. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
    • Merrifield, William (1959). Classification of Kiowa nouns. International Journal of American Linguistics, 25, 269-271.
    • Mithun, Marianne (1999). The languages of native North America (pp. 81-82, 444-445). Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-23228-7.
    • Sprott, Robert (1992). Jemez syntax. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, USA).
    • Sten, Holgar (1949) Le nombre grammatical. (Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague, 4.) Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
    • Watkins, Laurel J.; & McKenzie, Parker. (1984). A grammar of Kiowa. Studies in the anthropology of North American Indians. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-4727-3.
    • Weigel, William F. (1993). Morphosyntactic toggles. Papers from the 29th Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society (Vol. 29, pp. 467-478). Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
    • Wiese, Heike (2003). Numbers, language, and the human mind. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-83182-2.
    • Wonderly, Gibson, and Kirk (1954). Number in Kiowa: Nouns, demonstratives, and adjectives. International Journal of American Linguistics, 20, 1-7.
    • Vinokurova, Nadezhda. 2005. [1] Lexical categories and argument structure: a study with reference to Sakha.] Ph.D. diss. University of Utrecht.
    • Davidson, Donald. 1967. The logical form of action sentences. In Nicholas Rescher, ed., The Logic of Decision and Action, Pittsburgh, Pa: University of Pittsburgh Press.
    • Parsons, Terence. 1990. Events in the semantics of English: a study in subatomic semantics. Cambridge, Mass.:MIT Press
    • Croft, William. 1993. "A noun is a noun is a noun - or is it? Some reflections on the universality of semantics." Proceedings of the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, ed. Joshua S. Guenter, Barbara A. Kaiser and Cheryl C. Zoll, 369-80. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
  • 31. Ocoбенности выражения благодарности в иностранном языке (на примере английского языка)
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    В прикладных исследованиях данного предмета поднимается вопрос о возможности установить “систему правил”, которые определяли бы методику техник для интонационного оформления устной речи в зависимости от эмоциональных, лексических, психологических характеристик, а также “задач” и “сверхзадач” предстоящего действия . “…Сама структура языка мертва и недвижима. Ее приводит в движение человек,…внутриструктурные процессы имеют социальную природу, если понимать социальное в широком смысле как коммуникативное действие индивида и социума” Язык - не дар природы, а творение человека. Его звуковые, структурные, семантические характеристики - продукт длительного совершенствования. Основным и постоянно действующим стимулом эволюции, как можно себе представить, является коммуникативная необходимость, поскольку ментальная, концептуальная, интеракциональная деятельность человека возможна в результате адекватности структуры языкового механизма. .

  • 32. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    It follows from this, that phonetics a basis brunch or fundamental brunch of linguistics, that is why phonetics claims to be of equal importance with grammar and lexicology. Phonetics has two main divisions: phonology, the Study of sound patterns of languages, of how a spoken language functions as a "code", and the study of substance, that carries the code. It shows that there is a close relationship between the language and thought. In modern linguistics this relationship is explained the terms of distinctions: substance and form. By the term "substance" we mean the material - carries of all the elements of a language and the term form" we mean linguistic concepts. Human speech is called the "phonic substance" in which linguistic forms are manifested. The speech may be either oral or written. The term "phonetics" comes - from the Greek word "pho:n" - meaning sound, voice and "-tica" - a science. So, phonetics is a special science which studies the phonetic substance and expressions area of the language. The linguistic form and content are described by other brunches of linguistics, namely grammar (morphology and syntax) lexicology (vocabulary, the formation and the meaning of the words) and stylistics (expressive - emotional meaning). Human speech is the result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of the concept takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker;

  • 33. Phrasal verbs
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Olga Fischer believes the emergence of phrasal verbs to be "the most notable new development in Middle English [the form of the English language spoken and written from about the 12th to the beginning of the 16th centuries] involving prepositions" (386). Phrasal verbs developed because Old English [the earliest from of the English language, used up to around A.D. 1150 prefixes were deteriorating (Cambridge History 377), and they have now practically replaced the prefixes (Fischer 386). The deterioration of Old English prefixes came about because it was becoming impossible to establish undeviating meanings for them (Cambridge 377). Bachelor argues in his commentary that "phrasal verbs are a native development that in some measure received a boost from the [Scandinavian, French, and Celtic] languages." In fact, the development of phrasal verbs in both the northern and southern dialects at the same time attests to their native development. Also, since phrasal verbs are used more in vernacular English than in formal and since lexically mature verb-particle combinations have been found in the mid-twelfth century, some experts argue that "we must suppose the type to have become deeply entrenched even before period IV [i.e. the period between 1170 and 1370]" (Fischer 398). Even then, phrasal verbs did not show much fortitude until the fifteenth century. The expansion of phrasal verbs occurred with the adoption of the Subject Verb Object (SVO) word-order (Bachelor). One researcher, Kennedy, proposes the idea that this took place because the invasion of Romance compound verbs stunted the growth of new verb-particle combinations (Fischer 398). The history of phrasal verbs is still under debate today. [8]

  • 34. Polysemy in the semantic field of movement in the english language
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Similarly, a subdomain, which acts as Focus on the level of focalization number 2, becomes Topic at lexeme-level, since all the lexemes in the subdomain share the nuclear information formalised by the subdomain. Then, as we move down in the semantic hierarchy which characterizes the internal structure of each subdomain, what is Focus in the meaning definition of the archilexeme (level of focalization number 3) becomes Topic in the meaning definition of its hyponyms (level of focalization number 4). For example, if we take the subdomain analysed above, To move down, the definiens “to move down” acts as Focus in the definition of fall (the archilexeme), and as Topic in the definition of plunge, plummet and come down, the function of Focus being performed by the semantic parameters of manner and place in that they individuate the members of the subdomain.

  • 35. PR в шоу-бизнесе
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Ëèòåðàòóðà

    1. Àïôåëüáàóì Ñ., Èãíàòüåâà Å. Ñâÿçè ñ îáùåñòâåííîñòüþ â ñôåðå èñïîëíèòåëüíîãî èñêóññòâà. Ì.: Êëàññèêà-XXI, 2003.
    2. Ãîòîâöåâ Ë.È. Ïðàâäà î øîó-áèçíåñå. Ì.: Ðèïîë Êëàññèê, 2004.
    3. Ãîóëìàí Ä. Ýìîöèîíàëüíîå ëèäåðñòâî: Èñêóññòâî óïðàâëåíèÿ ëþäüìè íà îñíîâå ýìîöèîíàëüíîãî èíòåëëåêòà. Ì.: Àëüïèíà, 2005.
    4. Грачев Г., Мельник И. Манипулирование личностью: Организация, способы и технологии информационно-психологического воздействия // Центр экстремальной журналистики Союза журналистов России. - www.cjes.ru/lib
    5. Грин Э. Креативность в паблик рилейшнз. СПб.: Нева, 2004.
    6. Ãóðåâè÷ Ï.Ñ. Ïðèêëþ÷åíèÿ èìèäæà: òåõíîëîãèÿ ñîçäàíèÿ òåëåâèçèîííîãî îáðàçà è ïàðàäîêñû åãî âîñïðèÿòèÿ. - Ì.» Èñêóññòâî, 1991.
    7. Äàâèäñîí-Ïàñå÷íèê Â. Òåõíîëîãèÿ èìèäæà. Êèøèíåâ: Óëèì, 1999.
    8. Доценко Е.Л. Психология манипуляции. Феномены, механизмы, защита. - М., 1996.
    9. Æäàíîâà Å.È., Èâàíîâà Ñ.Â., Êðîòîâà Í.Â. Óïðàâëåíèå è ýêîíîìèêà â øîó-áèçíåñå. Ì.: Ôèíàíñû è ñòàòèñòèêà, 2003.
    10. Засурский И. Масс-медиа второй республики. - М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1999.
    11. Иванов Г.П., Огурчиков П.К., Сидоренко В.И. Основы продюсерства. Аудиовизуальная сфера. М.: ЮНИТИ, 2003.
    12. Кара-Мурза С. Манипуляция сознанием. - М.: «Алгоритм», 2000.
    13. ÊèëîøåíêîÌ. Ïñèõîëîãèÿ ìîäû: òåîðåòè÷åñêèå è ïðèêëàäíûå àñïåêòû. Ì.: Ðå÷ü, 2001.
    14. Êîíîâàëîâ À.Â. Ìàëåíüêèå ñåêðåòû áîëüøîãî øîó-áèçíåñà. ÑÏá.: Ïèòåð, 2005.
    15. Ìåùåðÿêîâà Ñ.Þ. Âàø èìèäæ. Ì.: ÀÑÒ, 2001.
    16. Íüþñîì Ä., Òåðê Ä., Êðóêåáåðã Ä. Âñå î PR. Òåîðèÿ è ïðàêòèêà ïàáëèê ðèëåéøíç. Ì.: Èíôðà-Ì, 2001.
    17. Îãèëâè Ä. Îãèëâè î ðåêëàìå. Ì.: ÝÊÑÌÎ, 2004.
    18. Ïàíàñîâ È.Â. Øîó-áèçíåñ. Ì.: ÝÊÑÌÎ, 2004.
    19. Ïåðåëûãèíà Å.Á. Ïñèõîëîãèÿ èìèäæà. Ì.: Àñïåêò-Ïðåññ, 2002.
    20. Ïî÷åïöîâ Ã.Ã. Èìèäæåëîãèÿ. Ì.: Ðåôë-áóê, 2004.
    21. Почепцов Г.Г. Коммуникативные технологии двадцатого века. М.: Рефл-бук, К.: Ваклер, 2000.
    22. Почепцов Г.Г. Психологические войны. М. К.: Рефл-бук, 2000.
    23. Ïðèãîæèí È.È. Ïîëèòèêà - âåðøèíà øîó-áèçíåñà. Ì.: Àëêèãàììà, 2001.
    24. ÐR ñåãîäíÿ: íîâûå ïîäõîäû, èññëåäîâàíèÿ, ìåæäóíàðîäíàÿ ïðàêòèêà. Ì.: ÈÌÈÄÆ-Êîíòàêò, Èíôðà-Ì, 2002.
    25. Ðàççàêîâ Ô.È. Çà êóëèñàìè øîó-áèçíåñà. Ì.: ÀÑÒ, 2004.
    26. Ðþìøèíà Ë.È. Ìàíèïóëÿòèâíûå ïðèåìû â ðåêëàìå. - Ì.: ÌàðÒ, 2004.
    27. Ñëîáîäÿíþê Ý. PåRñîíàëüíûé èìèäæ. Èìèäæìåéêèíã â ñèñòåìå public relations // Çåðêàëî ðåêëàìû, 2004, ¹ 5.
    28. ÑûðîìÿòíèêîâàÈ.Î. Èñêóññòâî ãðèìà. Ì., 1992.
    29. Ôàäååâà Å.È. Òàéíà èìèäæà. Ì.: Åâðîïåéñêèé ãóìàíèòàðíûé óíèâåðñèòåò, 2002.
    30. Ôåîôàíîâ Î.À. Ðåêëàìà: íîâûå òåõíîëîãèè â Ðîññèè. ÑÏá.: Ïèòåð, 2000.
    31. Ôðóìêèí Ã.Ì. Ââåäåíèå â äðàìàòóðãèþ òåëåðåêëàìû. Ì.: Àêàäåìè÷åñêèé ïðîåêò /Àëüìà Ìàòåð, 2005.
    32. Öèòàòû î Public Relations (PR) // «Òðèç-Øàíñ». - www.triz-chance.ru
    33. ×åðíîìûñ Î. ×åëîâåê-îðêåñòð // Îáó÷åíèå â Ðîññèè, 2002, ¹ 8.
    34. ØåïåëüÂ.Ì. Èìèäæåëîãèÿ: Ñåêðåòû ëè÷íîãî îáàÿíèÿ. Ì., 1994.
  • 36. PR: наука об установлении связей в обществе
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Поскольку одежда человека является основной частью его внешнего имиджа, специалисты по «гардеробной инженерии» дают ряд советов мужчинам и женщинам, занимающим разные социальные позиции, с целью улучшить впечатление о себе. Одна из известных книг даже называется «Одежда для успеха». Основные рекомендации все-таки сводятся к тому, чтобы не выделяться из окружающего вас социума: изучите, как одеты люди, которые вас окружают, и в целом следуйте их образцам одежды. Впрочем, не все высказывают такую точку зрения. Некоторые полагают, что одеваться надо так, как требует место, на которое вы претендуете, а не так, как требует то место, которое вы уже занимаете. Эти советы демонстрируют действие механизма идентификации перенесение свойств других людей на самого себя. Гораздо реже проявляется другой механизм персонификации, перенесения своего «я» на других людей в процессе сравнения себя с ними. Наши отечественные модельеры деловой одежды, особенно мужской, рекомендуют небольшое отставание от моды, то «чуть-чуть», которое заставляет видеть в человеке его серьезность, основательность, исключительно деловую направленность. Можно также воспользоваться следующей классификацией стилей одежды:

    1. традиционный стиль (форменная или национальная одежда) выбор этого стиля свидетельствует о ригидности, стремлении к сохранению единообразия, культурной замкнутости, высокой степени этноцентризма;
    2. однообразный стиль ее носитель не способен на духовные затраты;
    3. консервативный стиль расчетливость, рассудочность;
    4. классический стиль классически одевается тот, кто хочет укрепить свой авторитет и претендует на престижные позиции;
    5. модный стиль свидетельство благоприятного отношения к переменам;
    6. разнообразный свидетельствует о беспокойстве и недостаточной готовности к душевной самоотдаче;
    7. оригинальный стиль раскрывает предприимчивую личность.
    8. экстравагантный стиль подчеркивает свое отличие от других, самоутверждение.
  • 37. Pragmatics: rules of conversation
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

     

    1. Bach, Kent, "Conversational Impliciture." - Mind and Language -1994 - pp.124-162.
    2. Bach, Kent, "The myth of conventional implicature." Linguistics and Philosophy. - 1999 - pp.262-283.
    3. Bach, Kent, 2004, "Pragmatics and the Philosophy of Language." In Horn and Ward (eds.) 2004 - pp. 463-87.
    4. Blakemore, Diane. Understanding Utterances. Oxford: Blackwell. 1992.
    5. Carston, Robyn. "Implicature, explicature, and truth-conditional semantics." Reprinted in Kasher (ed.) 1998 - pp. 436-79.
    6. Chapman, Siobhan. Paul Grice, philosopher and linguist. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.-2005
    7. Grice, H. Paul, "Logic and conversation.", Syntax and Semantics 3: Speech Acts, New York: Academic Press - 1975 - pp. 41-58.
    8. Grice, H. Paul "Further notes on logic and conversation." In P. Cole (ed.) 1967.
    9. Grice, H. Paul "Utterer's Meaning and Intentions," Philosophical Rework - 1969 - pp.147-177.
    10. Grice, H. Paul "Presupposition and Conversational Implicature." In P. Cole (ed.), Radical Pragmatics, New York: Academic Press - 1981- pp. 183-97.
    11. Horn, Laurence R. and Gregory Ward (eds.) The Hanbook of Pragmatics. Oxford: Blackwell. 2004.
    12. Kempson, Ruth M. "Grammar and Conversational Principles." In F. Newmeyer (ed.) Linguistics: The Cambridge Survey, Vol. II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1988 - pp. 139-163.
    13. Levinson, Stephen. Presumptive Meanings. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press/Bradford Books- 2000.
    14. Neale, Stephen "Paul Grice and the Philosophy of Language," Linguistics and Philosophy - 1992 pp.509-559.
    15. Searle John "Indirect speech acts." ibid. Reprinted in Pragmatics: A Reader, ed. S. Davis, Oxford: Oxford University Press. -1991- pp. 265277.
    16. Thomason, R. Accommodation, meaning, and implicature: Interdisciplinary foundations for pragmatics. In Intentions in Communication, ed. P. R. Cohen, J. L. Morgan & M. Pollack, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press -1990 - pp. 32563.
    17. Van Kuppevelt, J. (1996) Inferring from topics: Scalar implicatures as topic dependent inferences. Linguistics and Philosophy 1996 pp. 393443
    18. Wilson, D., and Sperber, D. On Grice's theory of conversation. In Conversation and Discourse, ed. P. Werth, New York: St. Martins Press -1981- pp. 15578.
  • 38. Problem of sraff (personnel) adaptation
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    As possible organizational decisions of a problem of structural fastening functions of management by adaptation the following can be offered:

    1. Allocation of corresponding division (a group, a department) in structure of control systems of the personnel. More often functions on management of adaptation are a part of division on training the personnel.
    2. Distribution of the experts who engaged in management of adaptation, on divisions (to shops, departments) or to groups of divisions. In this case the expert on the personnel becomes the curator of the certain divisions. It is necessary to notice, that the expert on management of adaptation can be as the employee of one of divisions of a control system of the personnel, and the employee of other functional division prepared for this role.
    3. ) Development of preceptor ship which is forgotten in the domestic organizations last years. Foreign firms consider the preceptor ship as actively application of the form of trust to the skilled employee, and also as the certain stage in its service promotion. Thus preceptor ship is supported by material stimulus. . As instructors can heads, and the young employees who worked of some years and have positively proved can act as skilled workers with the experience. This experience originating in Japan, successfully develops in last years in the European firms.
    4. Development of structural interrelations of a control system by the personnel (in particular, divisions of management of adaptation) with service of the organization of management. In many foreign firms this service is structurally included in system of controlling. A subject of functional interrelations between divisions of management of adaptation and the organizations of management are mainly questions of forms and principles of the organisation of work, system of introduction of innovations, etc.[4;68-69]
  • 39. Project Work in Teaching English
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Project work leads to purposeful language use because it requires personal involvement on the part of the students from the onset of a project, students, in consultation with their instructor, must decide what they will do and how they will do it, and this includes not only the content of the project, but also the language requirements. So from this point project work emerges as a practical methodology that puts into practice the fundamental principles of a communicative approach to language teaching. It can thus bring considerable benefits to our language classroom, like:

    • Increased motivation - learners become personally involved in the project.
    • All four skills, reading, writing, listening and speaking, are integrated.
    • Autonomous learning is promoted as learners become more responsible for their own learning.
    • There are learning outcomes -learners have an end product.
    • Authentic tasks and therefore the language input are more authentic.
    • Interpersonal relations are developed through working as a group.
    • Content and methodology can be decided between the learners and the teacher and within the group themselves so it is more learner centred.
    • Learners often get help from parents for project work thus involving the parent more in the child's learning. If the project is also displayed parents can see it at open days or when they pick the child up from the school.
    • A break from routine and the chance to do something different.
    • A context is established which balances the need for fluency and accuracy.[1,40]
  • 40. Reminiscences of Janet A. Mattei, former director of the American Associations of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO)
    Курсовые работы Иностранные языки

    Janet also faced some fairly intimidating technical challenges as well as the early administrative and political problems. One type of request from professional astronomers for technical support seemed to her to offer exceptional opportunities, coordinating observing programs with orbiting observatories. Professional astronomers managing orbiting observatories needed both predictions of events in cataclysmic variables (CVs) and real-time alerts when a brightening did occur. With some help from John Bortle, Janet quickly became skilled in predicting eruptions. By recruiting observers to provide real-time alerts and by making herself available to receive their notification calls at all hours of the day and night, Janet fashioned an active support program that continues to function well to this day. Her success in this program was largely responsible for the increased awareness and acceptance of the AAVSO within the professional community that we now enjoy. France Cordova announced to the world at the 1979 AAVSO annual meeting that an SS Cygni maximum that had been predicted by Janet, and then detected by AAVSO observers, had been observed in X-rays-the first time the observation of X-rays coincided with a transient event in a visually observed astronomical object. No one who was present will likely forget the electrifying excitement felt by proud AAVSO members, most of all by Janet, when that announcement was made.