Информация по предмету Разное

• 81. Business associations
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  B.DEFECTS IN FORMATION PROCESS--DE JURE AND DE FACTO CORPS--when there is a defect or irregularity in formation, the question is whether the corp exists de jure, de facto, by estoppel, or not at all. This issue usually arises when a third party seeks to impose personal liability on would-be shs. Another method of challenging corporate status, used only by the state, is a quo warranto proceeding. Note: where there has not been compliance with the statute, we apply principles of de facto, de jure and corp by estoppel. Where there has been compliance with the statute, we apply principles of disregard of corporate fiction, a/k/a piercing the corporate veil, which is an exception, rather than a rule.

• 82. Business at work
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  Each large supermarket retailer in Britain has its own corporate identity and culture. Often these are very similar, yet each organisation seeks to present its own individual image. Of the types of cultures that I have discussed above, I think that Tesco displays many of these differing forms, especially customer driven or customer orientated, task culture, competitive culture, innovative culture and positive culture. It is often said that in business “the customer is King” and this is very true of Tesco, which operates in a very competitive market. It must be very heavily customer orientated as satisfied customers will usually regularly return, but dissatisfied customers may not …. and go elsewhere! It is also very innovative, always encouraging new ideas and products, e.g. the possible introduction of car sales. Tesco used to be a food retailer, but now it also sells clothing, electrical goods, books and stationary, computers, mobile phones, etc. It has a very positive culture as it is always searching for new opportunities for its staff and also its retail products. Its success is now a good indicator of how this blend of business cultures has led to market growth and market leadership.

• 83. Business Ethics
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  Nestle's work on business ethics is one of great importance. As you can see from their web site www.nestle.com this is one of their major focal points. Nestle, like many other businesses have created what they believe to be a comprehensive ethical policy or codes of ethics, in plain they are lists of what they believe is ethical behaviour and how they should behave. However, the existence of a code of ethics may not guarantee that the company will conduct itself ethically. Ethics codes are often drawn up in response to scandals and to protect the name of the company, and then this only state its legal responsibilities and the conduct it expects from its employees, rather than listing any ethical principals and aspirations that it holds. The emphasis has often been on the company setting standards for the employees to meet, so it will not be caught breaking the law, rather than realising that the company itself needs to be guided in its business conduct. Nestle have got an ethics policy from legislation to child labour, they have covered every single topic they believe comes under the word of ethics. Nestle believe that every single area of their business needs to have an ethics policy in which they should be able to follow, as they are a global company and their arms stretch to many different area's. Nestlé Global Commitment and Responsibilities Since Henri Nestlé develoed the first milk food for infants in 1867, the Nestlé company has gained vast experience through its scientific research into the nutritional needs and food preferences of consumers of all ages. No other food company invests so much in fundamental and applied research. The company has been a leading food manufacturer and major purchaser of agricultural raw materials for over 130 years. Food and agriculture are an integral part of the social, cultural, economic and political context of every community. Since Nestlé activities in Switzerland, its country of origin, account for less than 2% of its global turnover, Nestlé learned very early to respect the social, political and cultural traditions of all countries in which the products are produced and sold. They also learned to be a highly decentralized people and products oriented company rather than a systems centred organisation. Today, Nestlé is the world's largest and most diversified food company, with nearly 500 factories around the globe, producing healthy, enjoyable food products for every stage of life. Quality is the cornerstone of the success of the Nestlé Company. Everyday, millions of people all over the world show their trust in the company by choosing Nestlé products. This trust comes from a quality image that has been built up for over a century. Nestlé carries out its global social responsibility, firstly, by taking a long term approach to strategic decision making which recognizes the interests of our consumers, shareholders, business partners, and the world-wide economies in which we operate. Secondly, our responsibilities and values are reflected by the commitment of management and employees at all levels, to our Corporate Business Principles, which define standards of behavior for all companies in the Nestlé Group, and are intended to complement applicable legislation and international recommendations. P. Brabeck-Letmathe Chief Executive Officer Nestlé S.A. Nestlé Corporate Business Principles From www.nestle.com Nestlé is committed to the following business principles in all countries. Taking into account local legislation, cultural and religious practice: Nestlé's business objective and that of management and employees at all levels, is to manufacture and market the company's products in such a way as to create value that can be sustained over the long term for consumers, shareholders, employees, business partners and the large number of national economies in which Nestlé operates. Nestlé does not favour short-term profit and at the expense of successful long term business development, but recognizes the need to generate profit each year in order to maintain the support of the financial markets, and to finance investments. Nestlé believes that, as a general rule, legislation is the most effective safeguard of ethical conduct, although in certain areas, additional guidance to management and employees in the form of voluntary business principles is beneficial in order to ensure that the highest standards are met throughout the organisation. Nestlé is conscious of the fact that the success of a corporation is a reflection of the professionalism, conduct and ethical values of its management and employees, therefore recruitment of the right people, and ongoing training and development are crucial. Nestlé recognizes that consumers have a legitimate interest in the company behind the Nestlé brands, and the way in which the Nestlé Company operates.

• 84. Business relation ships in japan
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  Concern about how others perceive you pervades business and social communication in Japan. Since saving and losing face are so important, you should avoid confrontation or embarrassing situations. A distributor that cannot follow up on a promise made to a customer loses face and may suffer damages to its reputation. Remember, if you are supplying distributors in Japan, to deliver on time (especially if they are samples) or else face a long chain of lost faces and apologies. An error or delayed shipment, even if it is not your fault, may damage your company's reputation with the Japanese company you are dealing with as well as all the companies and customers that Japanese company does business with. Following through on promises and agreements, both oral and written, is of utmost importance and when you cannot do this you will have to swallow your pride and apologize profusely until you are forgiven. This is all part of common business practice and you may see business people (including top executives) on their knees apologizing. When in Japan be ready to include this as a part (hopefully not regular part) of your own business practice.

• 85. Cals-технологии
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  Для преодоления этих трудностей потребовались новые концепции и новые идеи. Среди них базовой стала идея информационной интеграции стадий жизненного цикла продукции (изделия), которая и легла в основу CALS. Она состоит в отказе от «бумажной среды», в которой осуществляется традиционный документооборот, и переходе к интегрированной информационной среде, охватывающей все стадии жизненного цикла изделия. Информационная интеграция заключается в том, что все автоматизированные системы, применяемые на различных стадиях жизненного цикла, оперируют не с традиционными документами и даже не с их электронными отображениями (например, отсканированными чертежами), а с формализованными информационными моделями, описывающими изделие, технологии его производства и использования. Эти модели существуют в интегрированной информационной среде в специфической форме информационных объектов. Системы, которым для их работы нужны те или иные информационные объекты, по мере необходимости могут извлекать их из интегрированной информационной среды, обрабатывать, создавая новые объекты, и помещать результаты своей работы в ту же интегрированную информационную среду (рис. 2, 3). Чтобы все это было возможно, информационные модели и соответствующие информационные объекты должны быть стандартизованы.

• 86. Canadian English
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  English is the second most widely spoken language in the world. It is the official language of The United Kingdom, Ireland, The United States, Canada, Jamaica, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand and it is widely spoken in India. It is the language of international business and science, of aviation and shipping. As so many people speak English in so many countries, there are many different "Englishes". The best form of English is called Standard English and is the language of educated English speakers. The government, The BBC, The Universities, uses it and it is often called Queens English. American English is the variety of the English spoken in the United States. It is different from English in pronunciation, intonation, spelling, vocabulary and sometimes even grammar! An Englishman goes to the town center to see a film while an American goes downtown to see a movie. If an Englishman needs a pen he would ask you: "Have you got a pen, please?" but the American would say:" Do you have a pen?" Australian and New Zealand English, also called Australian English, are very similar. Especially in pronunciation they are also similar to British English, but there are differences in vocabulary and slang. Many terms, such as kangaroo, dingo, wombat and boomerang, come from the Aboriginal language and many others from the Cockney dialect spoken by the first settlers, The Londoners. Canadian English is different both from American and from British English.

• 87. Choosing a career
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  A couple of years ago I wanted to become a biologist. I thought it was a very interesting profession. I was good at biology in school. But in the 9th form I have changed my mind: I already have wanted to be an economist. I think I have an aptitude for working with figures and solving mathematical problems. And now I'm going to be an economist. I know that the life of a person of this profession sometimes is very difficult. The success of this job depends on enterprise, knowledge and skills of a person. That's why after school I would like to enter to the State University-High Economics School. My parents are involved in this problem. My father is working with immovable property for about 10 years, my mother is working in a music school. I think my future profession is suitable for me, because I'm energetic, communicative and quick by nature. These personal characteristics will help me to succeed in my career, but I would like to develop some qualities of my character, such as diligence, patience and organizing. When you choosing a future career it's a good idea to take different factors into account. I think, my future career will satisfy me, will be well-paid.

• 88. Claudius Ptolemy
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  In examining the theory of the sun, Ptolemy compares his own observations of equinoxes with those of Hipparchus and the earlier observations Meton in 432 BC. He confirmed the length of the tropical year as 1/300 of a day less than 365 1/4 days, the precise value obtained by Hipparchus. Since, as Ptolemy himself knew, the accuracy of the rest of his data depended heavily on this value, the fact that the true value is 1/128 of a day less than 365 1/4 days did produce errors in the rest of the work. We shall discuss below in more detail the accusations which have been made against Ptolemy, but this illustrates clearly the grounds for these accusations since Ptolemy had to have an error of 28 hours in his observation of the equinox to produce this error, and even given the accuracy that could be expected with ancient instruments and methods, it is essentially unbelievable that he could have made an error of this magnitude. A good discussion of this strange error is contained in the excellent article .

• 89. Colonization and Development of Pennsylvania
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  Pennsylvania had very rich cultural and social life. First of all, Pennsylvania was multi-cultural. The failure of all attempts by Indians and colonists to live side by side led the Indians to migrate westward, leaving Pennsylvania. Open territories were shared by majority of English Quakers, thousands of Germans, Scotch-Irish (which became one-fourth of population), smaller groups of Irish, Welsh, French, Jewish, Dutch and Swedes and African Americans,(mostly slaves and servants). Pennsylvania was popular for its religious tolerance. Big Lutheran and later Catholic churches, as well as smaller sects: Mennonites, Amish, German Baptist Brethren or "Dunkers," Schwenkfelders, and Moravians were common for this area. Because of the liberality of Penn's principles and the freedom of expression that prevailed, the province was noted for the variety and strength of its intellectual and educational institutions and interests. An academy which held its first classes in 1740 became the College of Philadelphia in 1755, and ultimately grew into the University of Pennsylvania. It was the only nondenominational college of the colonial period. The arts, the sciences, and the public buildings of Philadelphia were the marvel of the colonies. Many fine old buildings in the Philadelphia area still bear witness to the richness of Pennsylvania's civilization in the 18th century. Newspapers and magazines flourished, as did law and medicine. Pennsylvania can claim America's first hospital, first library, and first insurance company.

• 90. Comets&Logic \english\
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  About 150 soviet organization and enterprises took part in the creation of the station “Vega” [4]. The considerable forces and means were taken for the experiment carrying out. It may seeme, that the experiment have passed successfully, the unique data have been received about the structure of comet nucleus. Still, the author of these lines does not agree with a such synonymous appreciation, although he doesnt deny the fact, that there really as received some unique information.
  Even more, than a year ago before the peak of the events of the experiment “Vega”, the author formulated and argumentally substantiated the hypothesis about comets forming in the result of piercing the rings of the planet-giants of Solar system by asteroids. This hypothesis was prevented to the ISR and other organizations. Unfortunately the hypothesis has not been considered at the ISR and author received only formal letters.
  Comrades from the ISR adopted the ice nucleus comet (with soils) hypothesis among their weapons, as a dogma, which, ostensibly, was shiningly confirmed by the experiment. In accordance with this hypothesis, the ice comet nucleus must gush out great quantities of steam and dust, that was reflected on the experiment itself: the minimum distance from the nucleus at which the both “Vega” apparatuses passed by, was intentionally chose within the limits of 8-9 thou km, although the actual precision of pointing was not worse than 1500 km. Only apparatus “Jiotto” (although not without the aid of the “Vegas”) passed closely to the nucleus and showed the features of a relief: hills, craters.
  In conformity with the author hypothesis the comet nucleus must be monolithic: stony, iron-stony, ferrous by the type of mothers asteroid. Gases, given off by nucleus under the Solar heating, - are the result of absorbtion and adsobtion the gases and other volatile components, composing the particles of the rings of major-planets. Thus, the ejections from the comet nucleus (“soiled” asteroid) must be comparatively small. To the point, it is confirmed by the data of apparatus “ICE” (ex “ISEE-3”), which passed through the tail of Jacobini-Cinner comet on 11 September 1985 (before the peak of the experiment “Vega”) the distance of 7850 km from the nucleus and which fixed an unexpectedly small density of the dust [5,6]. The experiment with the station “Vega-1” showed, that dust density is significantly less, than it was predicted by the “ice” model of the nucleus. In connection with this circumstance author sent a telegram at the ISR. The mistake may be corrected, inasmuch as also “Vega-2” took place and it trajectory may be improved so that photos would qualitative really, still it is no happened…
  But, after all, strictly speaking, even if both “Vegas” would be directed straight to the nucleus (with the accuracy of aiming equal to 1500 km all the same the result would be negative: they wouldnt hit the aim!) and on approaching to it they would be put out of order but still the task of the stations would be fulfilled as far as the information was transferred to the Earth in the real time. Nowadays the capacity for work of the two stations are no longer of any importance because the unique chance has been lost… There were two “Vegas” and each of them passed by the comet nucleus at the distance of 8-9 thousands km! It may be compared with the situation when the volcano eruption taking place at the Kamtchatka is observed from Moscow. It at least “Vega-2” approached closer to the nucleus then it would be possible to excuse the ambiguities and sheer blunder of the type: “The Halley-comet has a double nucleus?!” or “…it seems that the nucleus has no clear boundaries, - it is similar to a boiling pot” [7] according to the data of “Vega-1”. In [8] the following figures are offered: the time error of the meeting with the nucleus is 10-20 s, a relative velocity of the approach of SA (space apparatus) to the comet is less than 80 km/s. Consequently, the possible error of the two “Vegas” aiming (multiply these figures) is not more than 1.5 thousand km. Why was it necessary to fulfil such a senseless double? And who was interested in it?
  However, it was proudly declared that both of the stations are keeping their capacity for work and now the objects in Universe are searched that might be studied by the “Vegas”. Still, this declaration sounds as no more than an attempt to appologise their own mistakes (but to-day we dont hear much about these searches). Let us wish the ISR sucsess as far as the area of the searches is very wide: the whole boundless space!
  Probably the author is a little bit exaggerating, on the photos of “Vega-2” something is seen and this was shown for first time by TV USSR on the 24th of April, 1986 (after the program “Vremya” (“Time”)), but in this very TV-program a sacramental statement was formulated: the comet nucleus is a dark, coal-like body having the coefficient of reflection comparable with that of asteroids! But you see, the author of this paper expressed his opinion on this point even more definitely more than a year ago! My first letter to the ISR was sent on the 20th of February, 1985! Then at the same TV-program an incorrect conclusion was heard about that the comet nucleus was still icy. The same very thesis was formulated by Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev in [9, p.88]: “…the hypothesis according to which the comet nucleus is an enormous block of “dirty” ice of an irregular form has been confirmed…Its surface is covered by a crust of some refractory material having the thickness of about a centimeter the composition of this material is being specified”. The thesis is repeated with a really enviable persistence! R.Z.Sagdeyev is echoed by Professor V.I. Moroz the author of the so-called nucleus model in the form of a “March snow-drift” [10,11] that at first sight seems to be convincing. But this is at first sight only! The case is that this model is not in principle able-bodied! Though I had no chache to pick the nucleus of the Halley comet with my finger still I declare that the comparison of the comet nucleus with the March snow-drift is erroneous because of quite different physical condition. We know that specks of dust and mud dont fly away from the snow-drift due to the gravitation, and the Halley comet nucleus has practically no gravitation influence, as far as its mass is too small. Add to this the pressure of vapours being formed and dilating into vacuum… Under such circumstances even the crust of porous platinum would not keep at the surface for any considerable period of time, to say nothing of the impossibility of the process of the crust growth resulting in its self-renewal, i.e. the “March snow-drift” model that was widely advertised in disabled and groundless in principle!
  Basing on the theory of the icy nucleus it is difficult to explain the hills and craters at the surface discovered by “Jiotto”, not by the “Vegas”, as far as the melting of ice leads to the smoothing of “wounds” (Mr. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov is of the opinion that craters are percussive formations).
  Probably, R.Z.Sagdeyev and his colleagues being the focus of attention of the press and taking a great interest in giving away autographs were too busy and had no time not only to analyse the materials which I sent them but even to go deep into their own statements. Let us recall the situation around the experiment “Vega”: at first there were a lot of advertising in the press, by radio and TV, then the experiment itself was carried out and were promised that the results were to be published soon. Now the racket has been finally faded and it turns out that to “process the obtained material” requires a considerable time (more than a year) and the results will be published in special journals. And nowadays our attention is switched over to the project “Phobos” (“Fobos”) (writed in 1986 - Rem. A.G.). As for the Halley comet, it turns out that the answer to all the questions might be finally given probably only in 76 years when its next visit to the Sun takes place and well have at our disposal different technical possibilities - such a “regret” was expressed by the Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev (wasnt it done so that not to return any longer to this an unpleasant for him questions?). I am afraid that this “regret” is simulated. Still I suppose that tens of millions of roubles were not wasted only for the sake of vague knowledge?
  However, it is interesting to note that in [9] R.Z.Sagdeyev writes: “…the inevitability of the objective tendency doesnt diminish our responsibility before this (i.e. communist A.G.) future…”. Here undoubtedly Acad. R.Z.Sagdeyev is right. I would like to remind of that the USA are planning to realize their projects “Asteroid Flieby” and “Comets Rendezvous” earlier than in 76 years and the USSR may lose its priority in the science of comets…
  A comet nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the incident light [12], so it may be conclude that it is a black body of a good quality! And it was really difficult to call it icy.
  In [10] R.Z.Sagdeyev revealed a turn in his works that is unexpected enough, the academician writes: “Outwardly it (i.e. the object A.G.) is somewhat like Marss satellites - Phobos and Daimos (the “Phobos” project is in prospect with R.Z.Sagdeyev (in 1986) here is a sound logical connection for you! A.G.) but still more similar analogues may be some small satellites of Saturn and Uranus. This keeps within the frames of the hypothesis (I wonder, which and whose? As far as before this there was said a lot of nonsense about the cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc. A.G.), assuming, that comet nuclei were formed comparatively not far from the Sun, approximately at the placewhere the major planets are located from Jupiter to Neptune, and then were thrown off at a greater distance during the formation of these planets” (underlined by A.G.). Any explanation is needless… For Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev it remains nothing but to wait a little more and to pronounce quite a fatal phrase: “It seems to me that comet nuclei were generated out of asteroids while the latter were punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system…” i.e. to read at last the formula of my discovery.
  In [13] we were told that during the “Vega” experiment the amount of steam lost by the comet nucleus every second was measured for the first time. And the figure of tens of tons was cited. It would be interesting to know in what way this figure was obtained as far as there were no direct measurements of this index (for this purpose it would be ideal to place the comet nucleus into a sack!). However the author of this paper having at his disposal such values as the cross section of the nucleus, integral flow of the solar energy per unit of the area (i.e. solar constant taking into account the distance from the Sun) has determined the amount of water that may be heated from 3oK (the temperature of the cosmic background) up to the vaporous condition (with the account of all the phase transfers) per 1 second and has obtained the figure of the same order that in [13], assuming that ice is a black body (Kabs = 0.96). It means that this figure was simply calculated in ISR on the basis of their faulse model, i.e. the desirable was claimed as real.
  The apparatus “Jiotto” revealed the jet escaping of gas (vapours). The intensity in jets may not be higher than the physical limit caused by the ideal conditions of the solar heating (as far as the nucleus is not a gas-bag) and also by the accepted physical model (let it be even a black icy nucleus), consequently, the intensity out of the jet is much lower than the physical limit and the total loss of the nucleus mass in the form of vapour is in any case considerably lower than the figure mentioned in [13] and which representing the physical limit. Besides, it is known that the Halley-comet nucleus is rotating and one side of it is more active [14] and consequently the other is on the contrary less active. This circumstance reinforces the “activity contrast” and lowers the index. Thus the figure of 40 tons of the vapour lost by the comet per one second is exaggerated (and not by the order!), and if to take into account my hypothesis (i.e. the nucleus is the asteroid in its basis) it is exaggerated still more. The “Vega” apparatuses passed at a great relative velocity (~ 80 km/s) by the Halley comet nucleus thus creating their own blast, the amount of the registered dust and gas is to be distributed over a lot of kilometers of the trajectory; the dust and gas in their basic part may fly together with the comet and break off from it not so fast as it may seem taking account of all the forces and factors (many of them though weak act in great scales) may lead to an unusual result.
  Note that the fact consisting in that one side is more active than the other substantially confirms the mechanism of the comets formation as the result of punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids (see the materials of the application for the discovery), as far as the time of punching the ring by an asteroid (<1 s) is not sufficient for the asteroid to swing significantly. The porosity of coaly hondrites, for instance (and as hondrites may serve asteroids and also, in particular, the nucleus of the Halley-comet) may reach the value of more than 20% [15], that may promote a significant adsorption and absorption of volatile components which the ring contains. You should not forget that the punching of the ring (the layer of small bodies of the finite thickness and some average density) by a large asteroid is the process of a successive interaction of a massive monolithic body of irregular form with a great number of small bodies during a certain time interval. In this case as the evaporation of the colliding bodies is going on the shock wave will be growing “smoothly” enough and exerting its influence for a long time. In general, the physics of such an interaction differes from the physics of the stroke of two solid bodies commensurable with each other and is of interest as the object of a separate investigation both theoretical and experimental. It is obvious, however, that this circumstance may promote the capture of the volatile components of the ring.
  And now some remarks in respect of the photoes made by the “Vegas” apparatuses. In [10] Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev says that: “Powerful dust rejections are slightly camouflaging the nucleus surface but a detailed photometrical treatment allowed to determine its form, dimensions and reflecting ability”. However theres no statement that they succeeded is seeing the nucleus surface itself. Theres no doubt that the averaging of images, space filtering, etc., may “emphasize” something but they are not able to “extract” the information that is absent in the initial image. In this connection the statement that the images of the comet nucleus proper were obtained is not quiet correct. Incorrect and groundless is also the statement about that “...in comets... the material of which the Solar system was generated is preserved in its original form” [4]. Comets occur and die nowadays with the probability which estimated the above.
  After the “Vega” experiment a number of new hypotheses of the comet formation appeared, but they dont resolve all the contradiction in contrast to that offered by the author. At present the major part of specialists suppose that asteroids are dead comets (those left after the melting of ice - the main component). This point of work is an intermediate one, as far as it would be more correct to say: some asteroids are dead comets (the main component of the comet mass is the asteroid proper).
  The basic arguments were formulated by the author as far back as the beginning of 1985 and were expressed in the letters, besides in 1986 they found their reflection in the materials of the Application. At present these materials may be only supplemented in the light of the new experimental facts and data.
  The potent aspects of the hypothesis are:
  - its concrete character and the absence of any obstacles for the further concretization; absence of any abstractions of the type comet cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc., that were seen by nobody;
  - logical inevitability of the offered mechanism, caused by the absence of physical interdictions and the finite value of the probability of the event;
  - possibility of a versatile verification;
  - logical connection with all the available facts.
  Besides, the hypothesis at the same time gives a harmonious picture of such a phenomenon as the “Tungus meteorite” (appendix to the Application, here chapter 6), that in general agrees with new works on this phenomenon [16] and removes any misticism and mystery, created around this sensational question.
  
  5. TERMINOLOGY AND EXCEPTION TO THE RULE
  
  If the term “comet” implies a small celestial body with a gaseous cover (coma) or tail consisting of gas and dust that is probably more concrete than a vague meaning of this word given in dictionaries, then the author proposes to call the comets formed as result of piercimg of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids to call these comets “samaroid(s)” - in honour of the city of Samara which in 1986 celebrated its 400th anniversary (that was also the year of the Halley-comet). As it follows from the introduction to this article this name “samaroid” is quite justified.
  For the comets formed as a result of an asteroid passing along the trajectory close to the tangent through the atmosphere of such planets as the Earth, Mars and Venus (the Earth group) - it is known at least one case when a bolide (fire-ball) entered the atmosphere of the Earth, passed it through and then again went away beyond the limits of the atmosphere and at this it didnt become the Earth satellite - the author proposes the name (or term) “novid”. Though the probability of the formation of weak comets is such a way is almost zero, still it should not be fully excluded out of the sphere of our attention. After the contact with the atmosphere any celestial body takes away with it a portion of gases. Even SA - artificial Earth satellites have their own atmosphere. The term “novid” descend from the name of a small and very picturesque village “Novinky” situated in the Zhiguli mountains near the city of Samara within the area of the first national park in Russia (not 1st in the USSR) “Samarskaya Luka”.
  The two terms proposed by the author symbolize the unity of great and small in the Universe...
  For the comets out of the cloud Oort (let it be so! - the author is just enough) the author offers the term “Oortides”. - Let the Time to prove the vitality of these names.
  Thus, the “cosmic bulldozer” - the Halley-comet is, apparently, a ferrous-stony “samaroid” belonging to the Neptune (or Uranus?) family.
  
  6. TUNGUS PHENOMENON
  
  One of the arguments against the proposed mechanism of the comet formation may be a false interpretation of the event that took place in 1908 and is known under the name “Tungus meteorite” as far as the zone of fall was of an unusual character; the meteorite proper was not found. In this connection a great number of hypotheses appeared on the collision of the Earth and the icy comet that later on evaporated. But as far as the comet is no more than a “dirty asteroid” and is not a very original one as for the results of its influence then the author offers the following non-contradictory explanation of the event (without any pretension on originality).
  At 8 oclock a.m. on the 30th of June, 1908, in the Tungus taiga the event took place known under the name of “Tungus meteorite”.
  The examination of the place of the Tungus meteorite fall in 1927 and later on showed the absence of the meteor body and craters. The woods within the radius of 30 km was brought down by the blast [17, p.54]. All these in total was unlike a usual fall of meteorite.
  Take notice of several facts.
  After the fall of Sihote-Alin meteorite in 1947 numerous splinters were found. On having analysed these splinters a soviet scientist E.L.Krinov marked out conditionally three stages of the meteorite splintering into composing parts by a number of characteristic signs [17, p.42].
  At the Tungus meteorite fall an unusual phenomenon was observed: at the vast territory to the west of the place of the meteorite fall the night from the 30th of June to the 1st of July practically did not set in [17, p.53]. The sky was light and even in England it was possible to read a paper at this time (this phenomenon is, apparently, belonging to the type of “crepuscular” ones as far as this season the Sun sets not far beyond the horizon and the diffusion of Solar light may occur in the upper layers on fine-dispersed particles). At the same time to the east of the place of the meteorite fall there was nothing of the kind. This circumstance substantially confirms the assumption that the trajectory of the Tungus meteorite fall was close to the tangent to the Earth surface, i.e. the meteorite entered the atmosphere of the Earth at the small angle to the horizon. At such a trajectory the meteorite must move significantly longer in the Earth atmosphere, experiencing at this its resistance and being subjected to destruction. Thus, there are all the grounds to suppose that the number of stages of destruction of the Tungus meteorite was more than that of the Sihote-Alin meteorite (mentioned above) and on approaching to the place of its fall the Tungus meteorite was almost completely destroyed to small splinters, forming a kind of a cloud consisting of stony hail or “rain” if the body was melted in addition. On collision of this cloud with the Earth surface a powerful blast must be generated over a great area and in fact this phenomenon took place in case of the Tungus meteorite. Besides, recently in the region of the explosion the microscopic balls were discovered. These balls were not of the earthly nature [17, p.55].
  Thus, the Tungus meteorite is a small cosmic-body entered the Earth atmosphere by the trajectory close to the tangent and consequently subjected to the full destruction.
  
  References
  
  1. “This enigmatic Halley comet”. “Volzhkaya Zarya” (“Volgas sunset glow”) (a newspaper), 18 April, 1986, Kuibyshev, Russia, USSR.
  2. A.G.Goncharov. Application for the discovery “Comets formation phenomenon”. Archives of the All-Union Patent Library, № OT-11432, Moscow.
  3. F.L.Whipple. “Orbiting the Sun”, London, 1981.
  4. “Pravda”, the issue on the 19th March, 1986.
  5. E.Mukin. “Meeting with the Comet of Jacobini-Cinner”, “Science and Technique”, 1986, № 6, p.20, Moscow.
  6. G.K.Brandt, M.B.Nider-junior. Comet Tails Structure, “In the World of Science” “V Mire Nauki”(Translated in Russian), 1983, v.3, p.24-33.
  7. “Pravda”, the issue on the 12th March, 1986.
  8. “The Way to the Comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 17th April, 1986.
  9. “Communist”, v.5, 1986, Moscow.
  10. “Meeting with Halley-comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 6th of May, 1986.
  11. “From “Vega” to “Phobos””, “Znaniye-sila” (“Knowledze is Force”), 1986, v.12, p. 11-14, Moscow.
  12. “Science and Technique”, 1986, v.11, p.6, Riga, Latvia, USSR.
  13. “Science and Life”, 1986, v.7, Moscow.
  14. V.M.Balebanov, “”Vega”- project: final stage”, collect. ”Modern Achievments in Cosmonautics”, Moscow, “Znaniye”(“Knowledge”), 1986.
  15. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov. “Origin of Small Bodies of the Solar System”, “Astronomical Journal”, 1986, v.63, ed.1, p. 181-183, Moscow.
  16. N.N.Piluguin, T.A.Chernova. “Radiation Heat exchange of a Meteors-Body in Approximation of Radiant Heat-Conduction”, “Cosmic Researches”, 1986, v.24, ed.1, p. 58.
  17. V.S.Guetman. “Meteors and Meteorites”, Moscow, “Znaniye”, Ser. Cosmonautics, Astronomy. 1984, v. 2.

• 91. Comets&Logic english
  Другое Разное

  About 150 soviet organization and enterprises took part in the creation of the station “Vega” [4]. The considerable forces and means were taken for the experiment carrying out. It may seeme, that the experiment have passed successfully, the unique data have been received about the structure of comet nucleus. Still, the author of these lines does not agree with a such synonymous appreciation, although he doesnt deny the fact, that there really as received some unique information.
  Even more, than a year ago before the peak of the events of the experiment “Vega”, the author formulated and argumentally substantiated the hypothesis about comets forming in the result of piercing the rings of the planet-giants of Solar system by asteroids. This hypothesis was prevented to the ISR and other organizations. Unfortunately the hypothesis has not been considered at the ISR and author received only formal letters.
  Comrades from the ISR adopted the ice nucleus comet (with soils) hypothesis among their weapons, as a dogma, which, ostensibly, was shiningly confirmed by the experiment. In accordance with this hypothesis, the ice comet nucleus must gush out great quantities of steam and dust, that was reflected on the experiment itself: the minimum distance from the nucleus at which the both “Vega” apparatuses passed by, was intentionally chose within the limits of 8-9 thou km, although the actual precision of pointing was not worse than 1500 km. Only apparatus “Jiotto” (although not without the aid of the “Vegas”) passed closely to the nucleus and showed the features of a relief: hills, craters.
  In conformity with the author hypothesis the comet nucleus must be monolithic: stony, iron-stony, ferrous by the type of mothers asteroid. Gases, given off by nucleus under the Solar heating, - are the result of absorbtion and adsobtion the gases and other volatile components, composing the particles of the rings of major-planets. Thus, the ejections from the comet nucleus (“soiled” asteroid) must be comparatively small. To the point, it is confirmed by the data of apparatus “ICE” (ex “ISEE-3”), which passed through the tail of Jacobini-Cinner comet on 11 September 1985 (before the peak of the experiment “Vega”) the distance of 7850 km from the nucleus and which fixed an unexpectedly small density of the dust [5,6]. The experiment with the station “Vega-1” showed, that dust density is significantly less, than it was predicted by the “ice” model of the nucleus. In connection with this circumstance author sent a telegram at the ISR. The mistake may be corrected, inasmuch as also “Vega-2” took place and it trajectory may be improved so that photos would qualitative really, still it is no happened…
  But, after all, strictly speaking, even if both “Vegas” would be directed straight to the nucleus (with the accuracy of aiming equal to 1500 km all the same the result would be negative: they wouldnt hit the aim!) and on approaching to it they would be put out of order but still the task of the stations would be fulfilled as far as the information was transferred to the Earth in the real time. Nowadays the capacity for work of the two stations are no longer of any importance because the unique chance has been lost… There were two “Vegas” and each of them passed by the comet nucleus at the distance of 8-9 thousands km! It may be compared with the situation when the volcano eruption taking place at the Kamtchatka is observed from Moscow. It at least “Vega-2” approached closer to the nucleus then it would be possible to excuse the ambiguities and sheer blunder of the type: “The Halley-comet has a double nucleus?!” or “…it seems that the nucleus has no clear boundaries, - it is similar to a boiling pot” [7] according to the data of “Vega-1”. In [8] the following figures are offered: the time error of the meeting with the nucleus is 10-20 s, a relative velocity of the approach of SA (space apparatus) to the comet is less than 80 km/s. Consequently, the possible error of the two “Vegas” aiming (multiply these figures) is not more than 1.5 thousand km. Why was it necessary to fulfil such a senseless double? And who was interested in it?
  However, it was proudly declared that both of the stations are keeping their capacity for work and now the objects in Universe are searched that might be studied by the “Vegas”. Still, this declaration sounds as no more than an attempt to appologise their own mistakes (but to-day we dont hear much about these searches). Let us wish the ISR sucsess as far as the area of the searches is very wide: the whole boundless space!
  Probably the author is a little bit exaggerating, on the photos of “Vega-2” something is seen and this was shown for first time by TV USSR on the 24th of April, 1986 (after the program “Vremya” (“Time”)), but in this very TV-program a sacramental statement was formulated: the comet nucleus is a dark, coal-like body having the coefficient of reflection comparable with that of asteroids! But you see, the author of this paper expressed his opinion on this point even more definitely more than a year ago! My first letter to the ISR was sent on the 20th of February, 1985! Then at the same TV-program an incorrect conclusion was heard about that the comet nucleus was still icy. The same very thesis was formulated by Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev in [9, p.88]: “…the hypothesis according to which the comet nucleus is an enormous block of “dirty” ice of an irregular form has been confirmed…Its surface is covered by a crust of some refractory material having the thickness of about a centimeter the composition of this material is being specified”. The thesis is repeated with a really enviable persistence! R.Z.Sagdeyev is echoed by Professor V.I. Moroz the author of the so-called nucleus model in the form of a “March snow-drift” [10,11] that at first sight seems to be convincing. But this is at first sight only! The case is that this model is not in principle able-bodied! Though I had no chache to pick the nucleus of the Halley comet with my finger still I declare that the comparison of the comet nucleus with the March snow-drift is erroneous because of quite different physical condition. We know that specks of dust and mud dont fly away from the snow-drift due to the gravitation, and the Halley comet nucleus has practically no gravitation influence, as far as its mass is too small. Add to this the pressure of vapours being formed and dilating into vacuum… Under such circumstances even the crust of porous platinum would not keep at the surface for any considerable period of time, to say nothing of the impossibility of the process of the crust growth resulting in its self-renewal, i.e. the “March snow-drift” model that was widely advertised in disabled and groundless in principle!
  Basing on the theory of the icy nucleus it is difficult to explain the hills and craters at the surface discovered by “Jiotto”, not by the “Vegas”, as far as the melting of ice leads to the smoothing of “wounds” (Mr. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov is of the opinion that craters are percussive formations).
  Probably, R.Z.Sagdeyev and his colleagues being the focus of attention of the press and taking a great interest in giving away autographs were too busy and had no time not only to analyse the materials which I sent them but even to go deep into their own statements. Let us recall the situation around the experiment “Vega”: at first there were a lot of advertising in the press, by radio and TV, then the experiment itself was carried out and were promised that the results were to be published soon. Now the racket has been finally faded and it turns out that to “process the obtained material” requires a considerable time (more than a year) and the results will be published in special journals. And nowadays our attention is switched over to the project “Phobos” (“Fobos”) (writed in 1986 - Rem. A.G.). As for the Halley comet, it turns out that the answer to all the questions might be finally given probably only in 76 years when its next visit to the Sun takes place and well have at our disposal different technical possibilities - such a “regret” was expressed by the Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev (wasnt it done so that not to return any longer to this an unpleasant for him questions?). I am afraid that this “regret” is simulated. Still I suppose that tens of millions of roubles were not wasted only for the sake of vague knowledge?
  However, it is interesting to note that in [9] R.Z.Sagdeyev writes: “…the inevitability of the objective tendency doesnt diminish our responsibility before this (i.e. communist A.G.) future…”. Here undoubtedly Acad. R.Z.Sagdeyev is right. I would like to remind of that the USA are planning to realize their projects “Asteroid Flieby” and “Comets Rendezvous” earlier than in 76 years and the USSR may lose its priority in the science of comets…
  A comet nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the incident light [12], so it may be conclude that it is a black body of a good quality! And it was really difficult to call it icy.
  In [10] R.Z.Sagdeyev revealed a turn in his works that is unexpected enough, the academician writes: “Outwardly it (i.e. the object A.G.) is somewhat like Marss satellites - Phobos and Daimos (the “Phobos” project is in prospect with R.Z.Sagdeyev (in 1986) here is a sound logical connection for you! A.G.) but still more similar analogues may be some small satellites of Saturn and Uranus. This keeps within the frames of the hypothesis (I wonder, which and whose? As far as before this there was said a lot of nonsense about the cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc. A.G.), assuming, that comet nuclei were formed comparatively not far from the Sun, approximately at the placewhere the major planets are located from Jupiter to Neptune, and then were thrown off at a greater distance during the formation of these planets” (underlined by A.G.). Any explanation is needless… For Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev it remains nothing but to wait a little more and to pronounce quite a fatal phrase: “It seems to me that comet nuclei were generated out of asteroids while the latter were punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system…” i.e. to read at last the formula of my discovery.
  In [13] we were told that during the “Vega” experiment the amount of steam lost by the comet nucleus every second was measured for the first time. And the figure of tens of tons was cited. It would be interesting to know in what way this figure was obtained as far as there were no direct measurements of this index (for this purpose it would be ideal to place the comet nucleus into a sack!). However the author of this paper having at his disposal such values as the cross section of the nucleus, integral flow of the solar energy per unit of the area (i.e. solar constant taking into account the distance from the Sun) has determined the amount of water that may be heated from 3oK (the temperature of the cosmic background) up to the vaporous condition (with the account of all the phase transfers) per 1 second and has obtained the figure of the same order that in [13], assuming that ice is a black body (Kabs = 0.96). It means that this figure was simply calculated in ISR on the basis of their faulse model, i.e. the desirable was claimed as real.
  The apparatus “Jiotto” revealed the jet escaping of gas (vapours). The intensity in jets may not be higher than the physical limit caused by the ideal conditions of the solar heating (as far as the nucleus is not a gas-bag) and also by the accepted physical model (let it be even a black icy nucleus), consequently, the intensity out of the jet is much lower than the physical limit and the total loss of the nucleus mass in the form of vapour is in any case considerably lower than the figure mentioned in [13] and which representing the physical limit. Besides, it is known that the Halley-comet nucleus is rotating and one side of it is more active [14] and consequently the other is on the contrary less active. This circumstance reinforces the “activity contrast” and lowers the index. Thus the figure of 40 tons of the vapour lost by the comet per one second is exaggerated (and not by the order!), and if to take into account my hypothesis (i.e. the nucleus is the asteroid in its basis) it is exaggerated still more. The “Vega” apparatuses passed at a great relative velocity (~ 80 km/s) by the Halley comet nucleus thus creating their own blast, the amount of the registered dust and gas is to be distributed over a lot of kilometers of the trajectory; the dust and gas in their basic part may fly together with the comet and break off from it not so fast as it may seem taking account of all the forces and factors (many of them though weak act in great scales) may lead to an unusual result.
  Note that the fact consisting in that one side is more active than the other substantially confirms the mechanism of the comets formation as the result of punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids (see the materials of the application for the discovery), as far as the time of punching the ring by an asteroid (<1 s) is not sufficient for the asteroid to swing significantly. The porosity of coaly hondrites, for instance (and as hondrites may serve asteroids and also, in particular, the nucleus of the Halley-comet) may reach the value of more than 20% [15], that may promote a significant adsorption and absorption of volatile components which the ring contains. You should not forget that the punching of the ring (the layer of small bodies of the finite thickness and some average density) by a large asteroid is the process of a successive interaction of a massive monolithic body of irregular form with a great number of small bodies during a certain time interval. In this case as the evaporation of the colliding bodies is going on the shock wave will be growing “smoothly” enough and exerting its influence for a long time. In general, the physics of such an interaction differes from the physics of the stroke of two solid bodies commensurable with each other and is of interest as the object of a separate investigation both theoretical and experimental. It is obvious, however, that this circumstance may promote the capture of the volatile components of the ring.
  And now some remarks in respect of the photoes made by the “Vegas” apparatuses. In [10] Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev says that: “Powerful dust rejections are slightly camouflaging the nucleus surface but a detailed photometrical treatment allowed to determine its form, dimensions and reflecting ability”. However theres no statement that they succeeded is seeing the nucleus surface itself. Theres no doubt that the averaging of images, space filtering, etc., may “emphasize” something but they are not able to “extract” the information that is absent in the initial image. In this connection the statement that the images of the comet nucleus proper were obtained is not quiet correct. Incorrect and groundless is also the statement about that “...in comets... the material of which the Solar system was generated is preserved in its original form” [4]. Comets occur and die nowadays with the probability which estimated the above.
  After the “Vega” experiment a number of new hypotheses of the comet formation appeared, but they dont resolve all the contradiction in contrast to that offered by the author. At present the major part of specialists suppose that asteroids are dead comets (those left after the melting of ice - the main component). This point of work is an intermediate one, as far as it would be more correct to say: some asteroids are dead comets (the main component of the comet mass is the asteroid proper).
  The basic arguments were formulated by the author as far back as the beginning of 1985 and were expressed in the letters, besides in 1986 they found their reflection in the materials of the Application. At present these materials may be only supplemented in the light of the new experimental facts and data.
  The potent aspects of the hypothesis are:
  - its concrete character and the absence of any obstacles for the further concretization; absence of any abstractions of the type comet cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc., that were seen by nobody;
  - logical inevitability of the offered mechanism, caused by the absence of physical interdictions and the finite value of the probability of the event;
  - possibility of a versatile verification;
  - logical connection with all the available facts.
  Besides, the hypothesis at the same time gives a harmonious picture of such a phenomenon as the “Tungus meteorite” (appendix to the Application, here chapter 6), that in general agrees with new works on this phenomenon [16] and removes any misticism and mystery, created around this sensational question.
  
  5. TERMINOLOGY AND EXCEPTION TO THE RULE
  
  If the term “comet” implies a small celestial body with a gaseous cover (coma) or tail consisting of gas and dust that is probably more concrete than a vague meaning of this word given in dictionaries, then the author proposes to call the comets formed as result of piercimg of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids to call these comets “samaroid(s)” - in honour of the city of Samara which in 1986 celebrated its 400th anniversary (that was also the year of the Halley-comet). As it follows from the introduction to this article this name “samaroid” is quite justified.
  For the comets formed as a result of an asteroid passing along the trajectory close to the tangent through the atmosphere of such planets as the Earth, Mars and Venus (the Earth group) - it is known at least one case when a bolide (fire-ball) entered the atmosphere of the Earth, passed it through and then again went away beyond the limits of the atmosphere and at this it didnt become the Earth satellite - the author proposes the name (or term) “novid”. Though the probability of the formation of weak comets is such a way is almost zero, still it should not be fully excluded out of the sphere of our attention. After the contact with the atmosphere any celestial body takes away with it a portion of gases. Even SA - artificial Earth satellites have their own atmosphere. The term “novid” descend from the name of a small and very picturesque village “Novinky” situated in the Zhiguli mountains near the city of Samara within the area of the first national park in Russia (not 1st in the USSR) “Samarskaya Luka”.
  The two terms proposed by the author symbolize the unity of great and small in the Universe...
  For the comets out of the cloud Oort (let it be so! - the author is just enough) the author offers the term “Oortides”. - Let the Time to prove the vitality of these names.
  Thus, the “cosmic bulldozer” - the Halley-comet is, apparently, a ferrous-stony “samaroid” belonging to the Neptune (or Uranus?) family.
  
  6. TUNGUS PHENOMENON
  
  One of the arguments against the proposed mechanism of the comet formation may be a false interpretation of the event that took place in 1908 and is known under the name “Tungus meteorite” as far as the zone of fall was of an unusual character; the meteorite proper was not found. In this connection a great number of hypotheses appeared on the collision of the Earth and the icy comet that later on evaporated. But as far as the comet is no more than a “dirty asteroid” and is not a very original one as for the results of its influence then the author offers the following non-contradictory explanation of the event (without any pretension on originality).
  At 8 oclock a.m. on the 30th of June, 1908, in the Tungus taiga the event took place known under the name of “Tungus meteorite”.
  The examination of the place of the Tungus meteorite fall in 1927 and later on showed the absence of the meteor body and craters. The woods within the radius of 30 km was brought down by the blast [17, p.54]. All these in total was unlike a usual fall of meteorite.
  Take notice of several facts.
  After the fall of Sihote-Alin meteorite in 1947 numerous splinters were found. On having analysed these splinters a soviet scientist E.L.Krinov marked out conditionally three stages of the meteorite splintering into composing parts by a number of characteristic signs [17, p.42].
  At the Tungus meteorite fall an unusual phenomenon was observed: at the vast territory to the west of the place of the meteorite fall the night from the 30th of June to the 1st of July practically did not set in [17, p.53]. The sky was light and even in England it was possible to read a paper at this time (this phenomenon is, apparently, belonging to the type of “crepuscular” ones as far as this season the Sun sets not far beyond the horizon and the diffusion of Solar light may occur in the upper layers on fine-dispersed particles). At the same time to the east of the place of the meteorite fall there was nothing of the kind. This circumstance substantially confirms the assumption that the trajectory of the Tungus meteorite fall was close to the tangent to the Earth surface, i.e. the meteorite entered the atmosphere of the Earth at the small angle to the horizon. At such a trajectory the meteorite must move significantly longer in the Earth atmosphere, experiencing at this its resistance and being subjected to destruction. Thus, there are all the grounds to suppose that the number of stages of destruction of the Tungus meteorite was more than that of the Sihote-Alin meteorite (mentioned above) and on approaching to the place of its fall the Tungus meteorite was almost completely destroyed to small splinters, forming a kind of a cloud consisting of stony hail or “rain” if the body was melted in addition. On collision of this cloud with the Earth surface a powerful blast must be generated over a great area and in fact this phenomenon took place in case of the Tungus meteorite. Besides, recently in the region of the explosion the microscopic balls were discovered. These balls were not of the earthly nature [17, p.55].
  Thus, the Tungus meteorite is a small cosmic-body entered the Earth atmosphere by the trajectory close to the tangent and consequently subjected to the full destruction.
  
  References
  
  1. “This enigmatic Halley comet”. “Volzhkaya Zarya” (“Volgas sunset glow”) (a newspaper), 18 April, 1986, Kuibyshev, Russia, USSR.
  2. A.G.Goncharov. Application for the discovery “Comets formation phenomenon”. Archives of the All-Union Patent Library, № OT-11432, Moscow.
  3. F.L.Whipple. “Orbiting the Sun”, London, 1981.
  4. “Pravda”, the issue on the 19th March, 1986.
  5. E.Mukin. “Meeting with the Comet of Jacobini-Cinner”, “Science and Technique”, 1986, № 6, p.20, Moscow.
  6. G.K.Brandt, M.B.Nider-junior. Comet Tails Structure, “In the World of Science” “V Mire Nauki”(Translated in Russian), 1983, v.3, p.24-33.
  7. “Pravda”, the issue on the 12th March, 1986.
  8. “The Way to the Comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 17th April, 1986.
  9. “Communist”, v.5, 1986, Moscow.
  10. “Meeting with Halley-comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 6th of May, 1986.
  11. “From “Vega” to “Phobos””, “Znaniye-sila” (“Knowledze is Force”), 1986, v.12, p. 11-14, Moscow.
  12. “Science and Technique”, 1986, v.11, p.6, Riga, Latvia, USSR.
  13. “Science and Life”, 1986, v.7, Moscow.
  14. V.M.Balebanov, “”Vega”- project: final stage”, collect. ”Modern Achievments in Cosmonautics”, Moscow, “Znaniye”(“Knowledge”), 1986.
  15. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov. “Origin of Small Bodies of the Solar System”, “Astronomical Journal”, 1986, v.63, ed.1, p. 181-183, Moscow.
  16. N.N.Piluguin, T.A.Chernova. “Radiation Heat exchange of a Meteors-Body in Approximation of Radiant Heat-Conduction”, “Cosmic Researches”, 1986, v.24, ed.1, p. 58.
  17. V.S.Guetman. “Meteors and Meteorites”, Moscow, “Znaniye”, Ser. Cosmonautics, Astronomy. 1984, v. 2.

• 92. Communication Systems and Information Theory
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  3. The source and Channel Encoders. In order to further simplify the study of source models and channel models, it is helpful to partly isolate the effect of the source in a communication system from that of the channel. This can be done by breaking the encoder and decoder of Fig. 4.1. each into two parts as shown in Fig. 4.2. The purpose of the source encoder is to represent the source output by a sequence of binary digits and one of the major questions of concern is to determine how many binary digits per unit time are required to represents the output of any given source model. The purpose of the channel encoder and decoder is to allow the binary data sequences to be reliably reproduced at the output of the channel decoder, and one of course, whether restricting the encoder and decoder to the form of Fig. 4.2. imposes any fundamental limitations on the performance of the communication system. One of the most important results of the theory, however, is that under very broad conditions no such limitations are imposed (this does not say, however, that encoder and decoder of the form in Fig. 4.2. is always the most economical way to achieve a given performance). From a practical standpoint, the splitting of encoder and decoder is particularly convenient since it makes the design of the channel encoder and decoder virtually independent of the source encoder and decoder, using binary data as an interface. This, of course, facilitates the use of different sources on the same channel.

• 93. Comprehensive Income
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  Regarding reporting financial performance, international standards say the following:

  • IAS 1 requires presentation of a statement showing changes in equity. Various formats are allowed:
  • The statement shows (a) each item of income and expense, gain or loss, which, as required by other IASC Standards, is recognized directly in equity, and the total of these items, certain foreign currency translation gains and losses (IAS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates), and changes in fair values of financial instruments (IAS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement)) and (b) net profit or loss for the period, but no total of (a) and (b). Owners investments and withdrawals of capital and other movements in retained earnings and equity capital are shown in the notes.
  • Same as above, but with a total of (a) and (b) (sometimes called “comprehensive income”). Again, owners investments and withdrawals of capital and other movements in retained earnings and equity capital. An example of this would be the traditional multicolumn statement of changes in shareholders equity.

• 94. Criminology
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  Mary Douglas' book Purity and Danger is probably one of the top ten most influential books ever written in the last 500 years. It is about the subject of ritual, and rituals are the ways societies and people mark out their boundaries. There are many kinds of rituals: for purification, reconciliation, renewal, purity, passage, and mourning, for example. Douglas is concerned with purity rituals, which relate to the feeling of safety from dangers such as crime. You might understand the idea as the notion that there are "lucky charms" which protect you from danger, and there are plenty of theological examples as well (the Ark of the Covenant; the Holy Grail), etc. Each person also has their "bubble space" for self-protection, which is a kind of purity ritual. The existence of an angry person in one's space is considered dangerous, and everything on the margins (of society; one's environment) is also considered strange or dangerous. When people do wrong things, they are also polluting the purity of the environment, and pollution rules are not as equivocal as moral rules. A pollution rule might call for the immediate execution of a transgressor, for example, while a moral code might give them the benefit of the doubt. Like others (Garfinkel 1967), Douglas is saying that our criminal justice system as well as what we consider rights and wrongs are determined by our underlying, inborn, ritualistic responses. We see criminals as contaminating our world (like dirt). Justice provides no guarantee, but our ritual impulses always come out.

• 95. Cultural imperialism and cultural diplomacy
  Другое Разное

  New epoch, epoch of globalization, epoch of powerful mass media has opened new opportunities for propaganda. A man is grasped from TV every day; the material chosen by journalists has turned out in a stream of huge amount of information. “It is [TV] the crucial source of information about the outside world”. (Negrine op. Cit., ibid., p. 100). Naturally that if even journalists have no enough time for interpretation of the information, what hopes may be for average spectator to interpret this information correctly. “TV is a “heavily selected interpretation of events” (R. Hoggart “Bad news”. London, 1976, p.x.). In the stream of the information a spectator managed by own prejudices and moral brought from without is building from the information knots a picture of his own world. People received the opportunity to know so many things without learning anything. At the sense level a person understands that he is manipulated (probably because of that spectators appreciation of journalists are so low). From the other side the information containing burning topics of the day, sharply and easily for understanding given, wakes up in a person so powerful impulse which its very difficult not to be obeyed. As never before a man has become such unprotected against foreign influence, the question is what ideology will be more correct key for this or that country. From the other side despite that a man has learned to get over large distances for a short time, people have not became closer one another. It may be called “the theory of unknown people”. Unknown people are making clothes for us, selling foods, unknown people are defending us as a Police, unknown people are teaching our children, building our houses. When we are traveling by bus or by plane our lives are in the hands of unknown people. Why not to let these unknown people to take possessions of our minds (through TV and sound speakers)?

• 96. Cлова с "размытой" семантической структурой во французской разговорной речи
  Другое Разное

  Успешность коммуникации во многом определяется учетом говорящим состояния сознания адресата. "Только тогда, когда говорящий приспосабливает то, о чем он говорит, к тому, о чем, по его мнению, слушающий в данный момент думает, сообщение будет принято без помех" (3, с. 278). Поэтому собеседник, принимающий на себя роль говорящего, должен в начале позаботиться о том, чтобы ввести референт [2], о котором он собирается сделать некоторое сообщение, в область сознания слушающего. Иными словами, говорящий должен идентифицировать для слушающего объект, о котором идет речь, выбрать то языковое выражение, которое бы недвусмысленно указывало слушающему на предмет сообщения.

• 97. Cоборное уложение
  Другое Разное

  В грамотах, разосланных по областям летом 1648 года, было объявлено, что велено написать Уложенную книгу по указу государя и патриарха, по приговору бояр и по челобитью стольников и стряпчих и всяких чинов людей. В июле 1648 г. царь, посоветовавшись с патриархом и всея Руси Иосифом, с метрополитом с архиепископами и “со всем освещенным собором”, “государевыми бояры”, с “окольничьями” и “думными людьми” решил, что надо выписать те статьи, которые написаны в “правилах святых апостольких и святых отцов” и законов греческих царей, а также собрать и “справить” со старыми судебниками указы прежних правящих царей и “боярские приговоры на всякие государственные и земские дела”. Те же статьи, на которые в судебниках “указу не положено и боярских приговоров на те статьи не было, и те бы статьи по тому же напистаи и изложити по его государеву указу общим советом, чтобы Московского государства всяких чинов людем, от большаго и меньшаго чина, суд и расправа была во всяких делах всем ровна”. (из предисловия к соборному уложению). Составить проект Уложения было поручено особый кодификационный комиссии из 5-ти человек, из бояр кн. Одоевского и Прозоровско-го, окольничего князя Волконского и двух дьяков, Леонтьева и Грибоедова. Три главных члена этой комиссии были думные люди, а значит, этот “приказ князя Одоевского с товарищами”, как он называется в докумен-тах, можно считать комиссией думы, он был учрежден 16 июля. Тогда же решили собрать для рассмотрения принятия проекта к 1 сентября земской собор. Комиссия выбирала статьи из указанных ей в приговоре источников и составляла новые, те и другие писались “в доклад” и представлялись государю с думой на рассмотрение. Следует отметить, что Земской Собор 1648-1649 года был крупнейшим из всех, какие созывались в период существования в России сословно-представительной монархии. Тот факт, что важнейшие политические вопросы решались на Земских Соборах, свидетельствует о большом их значении и авторитете. По совету патриарха и боярскому “приговору” царь дал указание для рассмотрения и утверждения Соборного Уложения избрать на Земской Собор от стольников, стряпчих, дворян московских и жильцов по 2 человека, со всех городов от дворян и детей боярских, кроме Новгорода, по 2 человека, а из новгородцев с пятины - по 1 человеку, от гостей - по 3 человека, из гостиной и суконной сотен - по 2 человека, и из “черных” сотен и слобод и городов с посадов по 1 человеку. К 1 сентября 1648 года в Москву были созваны выборные “из всех чинов” государства, служилых и торгово-промышленных посадских; выборные от сельских или уездных обывателей, как от особой курии, не были призваны. Земской Собор, как по своим задачам, так и по составу, был феодально-крепостнический. С 3 октября царь с духовенством и думными людьми слушал составленный комиссией проект Уложения, который обсуждали в 2 палатах: в “Верхней”, где царь, Боярская Дума и освященный Собор, и в ответной, где выборные люди различных чинов под председательством князя Ю.А.Долгорукова, которые были призваны из Москвы и из городов, “чтобы то все Уложение впредь было прочно и неподвижно” (ряд статей Уложения пересказывает содержание челобитных, что указывает на участие выборных людей в составлении Соборного Уложения). Затем государь указал высшему духовенству, думным и выборным людям закрепить список Уложения своими руками, после чего оно с подписями членов Собора в 1649 году было напечатано и разослано во все московские приказы и по городам в воеводские канцелярии для того, чтобы “ всякие дела делать по тому Уложению”.

• 98. Cодержание серотонина в плазме крови и тромбоцитах и показатели захвата серотонина тромбоцитами
  Другое Разное

  В последнее время накоплено достаточно фактов, свидетельствующих в пользу влияния изменений в серотониновой системе непосредственно на сексуальное поведение (Spoont et al., 1992). Так, в результате ряда исследований было установлено, что снижение содержания серотонина в головном мозге приводит к повышению половой активности животных (Попова и др., 1978, Zemlan et al., 1978, Daprada et al., 1985). Исходя из имеющихся фактов, исследователи пришли к выводу, что серотонинергические механизмы оказывают ингибирующее влияние на половое поведение животных. В пользу данного вывода свидетельствовали и другие факты, в частности, усиление гомосексуального поведения самцов после снижения уровня серотонина в мозге на 80%, исчезновение половой активности после введения 5-окситриптофана (предшественника серотонина в цепи биосинтеза) и другие (Fagliamonte et al., 1969, Gessa et al., 1978). Снижение уровня серотонина в головном мозге сопровождается усилением полового влечения у всех животных, однако на внешние проявления гиперсексуальности определенный отпечаток накладывает "социальное положение" животного, его место в иерархии (Попова и др., 1978, Spoont et al., 1992), что говорит о том, что результаты экспериментов на животных следует переносить в клинику очень осторожно. Проводившиеся в последние годы исследования, преследовавшие цель изучения роли серотонинергической системы в регуляции полового поведения человека (Weissman, 1973, Zubi et al, Alssi, 1993 и другие), рассматривая тромбоцит как биохимическую и фармакологическую модель нейрона, определяли содержание серотонина в цельной крови и плазме, обогащенной тромбоцитами (Barr et al., 1992, Hanna et al., 1995). Также проводившееся исследование относительно обратного захвата серотонина показали, что при ряде состояний, в частности при обсессивно-компульсивных расстройствах, наблюдаются изменения в функциональной активности серотонина ( ). В соответствие с современными представлениями парафилии представляют собой нарушение психосексуальных ориентаций, являющихся завершающим этапом психосексуального онтогенеза. В свете целостного понимания психосексуального развития как единого непрерывного процесса, первыми этапами которого являются формирование полового самосознания и полоролевого поведения, лица с парафилиями оказываются в группе риска различных вариантов нарушения половой идентичности. Последние, с одной стороны, создают комплекс клинико-психологических предиспозиций для развитий аномалий сексуального влечения, с другой стороны указывают направление поиска клинико-патогенетических звеньев данных расстройств.

• 99. Cоциальная сущность проституции
  Другое Разное

  В 1903 г. второе отделение Русского общества охранения народного здравия постановило создать комиссию для обсуждения вопроса о врачебно-полицейском надзоре за проституцией в связи с общим вопросом о борьбе с нею. Эта комиссия на своих заседаниях в 1903-1904 гг. рассматривала несколько вопросов, касающихся проституции, в частности вопроса об определении таковой. Член комиссии, присяжный поверенный П.П. Соколов в своем докладе говорил о том, что "современное законодательство относительно проституции носит двойственный характер: с одной стороны, оно не только отрицает возможность заниматься проституцией, но даже карает лиц, как женщин, так и мужчин, за соблазнительный образ жизни; а с другой стороны - существует особый порядок и организация способов надзора за нею и порядок открытия и содержания публичных домов", то есть законодательство XIX - начала ХХ вв. относилось к проституции отрицательно, "признавая ее деяния преступными". Эта комиссия разбирала несколько предложенных определений сущности проституции, но четких решений так и не смогла принять. На рассмотрение собравшихся было предложено следующее определение термина: "Проституткой именуется женщина, занимающаяся продажей своего тела, как промыслом, - единственным или побочным при других каких-либо занятиях". Это определение оспаривалось многими на том основании, что в нем отсутствует понятие о публичности. Другое определение, предложенное для анализа "проститутка есть женщина, добывающая средства публичной продажей своего тела", так же было подвергнуто критике на том основании, что понятие о публичности не всем одинаково понятно, так как некоторые подразумевают под публичностью то, что делается на глазах у всех, а также, что в нем отсутствует указание о занятии проституцией. Исследователи категории "проституция" так же не были едины в своих изысканиях. Каждый из них выделял свой главенствующий (по его мнению) признак.

• 100. Cтановище дітей та молоді в зарубіжних країнах
  Другое Разное

  У Швеції молодіжна політика є елементом добре знаної “шведської моделі” економічного розвитку. Вона базується на пріоритеті молоді в різних галузях державної діяльності. Від 1986 року у Швеції існує посада міністра молоді, який відповідає за державну підтримку молодіжних організацій, за організацію відпочинку молоді тощо. Міністрові підпорядкована Рада у справах молоді, до якої належать 18 штатних працівників. Рада забезпечує координацію діяльності різних міністерств на стадії вироблення і прийняття рішень, що стосуються молоді. У Швеції міністр молоді має навіть право зупинити прийняття будь-якого рішення уряду, якщо воно не відповідає принципам та завданням молодіжної політики. Якщо ж обговорення подібної проблеми на робочому рівні не дає бажаного результату, міністр молоді може звернутися до премєр-міністра, зобовязаного створити комісію для вивчення конфлікту й розробки компромісного рішення. Молодіжна політика Швеції має на меті поглиблення віри молоді в дійсну політичну демократію; надання молоді можливості самій “робити” політику; вирішення таких проблем молодіжного середовища, як злочинність, алкоголізм, наркоманія; постійний діалог держави з молоддю.

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