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  • 241. Small business lending in Kazakhstan (предоставление кредитов малому бизнесу в Казахстане)
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    1. Blinov A. (1993) Razvitiye predprinimatelstva Economist No.6:70-73
    2. Dauanov I. (2000) Maliy biznes: problemi oformleniya kredita AlPari 5: 81,82
    3. Ershova G. (1995) Podderzka malogo predprinimatelstva Finansi No.2:17-18
    4. Finansirovanie I kreditovaniye subyektov malogo biznesa, 2001 http://business.zakon.kz/fincredit/
    5. Isabekov A. (1997) Problemi razvitiya malogo I srednego biznesa v Kazakhstane Economika Kazakhstana No.5-6:120-123
    6. Karibayev A. (1997) Razvitiye malogo predprinimatelstva v Vostochno-Kazahstanskoi oblasti Economika Kazakhstana No.4:13-15
    7. Kazbekov S. (1998) Kogda ge mladenez vstanet na nogi? Finansi Kazakhstana No.11:74-75
    8. Kozizin S. (1997) Mal kredit da dorog Finansist No.3:15-19
    9. Krediti dlya malogo biznesa EBRR, 2001 http://www.fund.kz/ebrr_c.html
    10. Kreditovaniye, 2001 http://www.kkb.kz/banking_re/sber/service/06_credit.asp
    11. Law of Republic of Kazakhstan from 19 July 1997 N 131-1 O gosudarstvennoi poddershke malogo predprinimatelstva(with amendments to this law in 10.07.98 № 283-1; in 26.07.99 № 458-1; in 29.11.99 № 488-1)
    12. Mahanov Z. (1997) O rossiyskoy federalmoi programme gosudarstvennoy podderzke malogo predprinimatelstva Economika Kazakhstana No.9-10:79-84
    13. Mishin A. (1998) Investizionnaya podderzka malogo bisnesa PEZ No.5:61-70
    14. Mukhamedghanov G. (1997) Sistema gosudarstvennoy podderzke malogo I srednego predprinimatelstva v promishlenno razvitih stranah Economika Kazakhstana No.9-10:116-121
    15. Osnovniye prinzipi kreditovaniya MP, 2001 http://www.tacisinfo.ru/brochure/banksme/pzayav_m.htm
    16. Sahauyeva Zhanar, 2001, interwork
    17. Tukayev A. (1998) Analys raxvitiya malogo biznesa v Kazakhstane Al Pari No.2:69-74
    18. Turgulova A. (1999) Gde brat dengi na maliy busines? Finansi Kazakhstana No.8-9:115-118
    19. Umbetov A. (1999) The role of banks in small business credit Al Pari No.2:29-33
    20. Vilenskiy A. (1999) Finansovaya podderzka malogo predprinimatelstva Economist No.9:88-90
    21. Yevropeyskiy bank rekonstrukzii I razvitiya, 2001 http://www.fund.kz/ebrr_c.html
    22. Appendixes.
  • 242. Socionical approach in studding of nations
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    abilities intuitionthe knock of human abilities feeling; sensing of developments perspectives; integral perception of the world, feeling of its unity, interdependency, reiteration on different levels of worlds hierarchy; understanding of the very essence of subjects and processes.times intuitionthe understanding of contradictions in outer world and in human psyche; the understanding of opposites, which separate people and events; feeling of danger; aptitude for seeing vainnessvolitional sensoricsaptitude for controlling of outer spaciousness; ability for putting pressure on others and to stand up to anyones pressure; understanding of enemys force and enforce; power; will to win; authority of powersensation sensoricscapacity for bodys necessities satisfaction, sensation of own body; beauty, design, turning towards the high inner quality; cosiness and comfortdynamic logicreasonable acting logic; technology, process, method, procedure, rule, algorithm, conveyor, cause and effect, enterprisestatic logicaptitude for systematizing knowledge and phenomena; deep understanding of logical correlation between objects; facts system, hierarchy, classification, statistics, register and verification, machineryemotions ethicscapacity for feeling persons emotional state, for its controlling; ability for inspiring people with joy, enthusiasm or fear, horror, anxiety, panic.relations ethicsworlds perception through peoples relations; the ability for adjusting needing relations; sense of duty; tolerance, love, kindness, charity, humanity

  • 243. Solidarity rights:universality and diversities
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    Nonetheless, there is widespread opinion that indiscriminate recognition of numerous demands or values as human rights would weaken the idea of human rights in general. However, the inclusion of collective rights (the right to political determination and the right to sovereignty over natural resources) in the two fundamental universal human rights instruments over thirty years ago has not ruin individual human rights and it is doubtful to do so. In the same way many authors are afraid of possible underestimation of individual rights in favor of collective rights. This idea is supported by the fact that the worst violations of individuals human rights occurred in the name of some “inspiring abstraction”, such as “the one true faith”, “the nation”, “the State”, etc. The term “people” is an abstraction as well. As a result, grave abuses of individual human rights might occur under “legitimating” label of collective interest, if any of the individual rights and freedoms protected by modern international human rights law ever will be regarded as in some sense inferior to peoples rights. On the other hand, there is a work that “peoples... are above all people” and that consequently such order has its advantages as well. According to the latter approach the main function of collective rights is still their benefit to the individual. Groups have no ultimate or necessary value, but they are a way in which individuals achieve various ends, which are necessary or desirable (in particular the good of community and the fulfillment of certain human capacities and attributes which are best fulfilled in community.) There is an opinion, that recognition of collective rights as human rights is meaningful as far as specific collective goods are essential for human self-realization. Such a conception of collective rights is called the “collective” conception, as opposed to the “corporate” one. The latter conception implies that rights are held by a single corporate entity and used for pursuing a common aim, unconnectedly to any individual composing it; whereas in the “collective” conception the rights are united, but the interests of the group members are different.

  • 244. State political system
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    I have chosen the topic because of its obvious importance. Ukraine is building a sovereign state and it is encounteing a lot of problems. Ukraine is suffering an overall deep crisis, trying to set herself free from the persistent inheritance of totalitarianism preying upon economic, politic, national self-consciousness. There is no universally efficient remedy to help the Ukrainian society out of this grave condition. The process of recovery will be long and arduous. Moreover, the countrys eventual deliverance from totalitarian inheritance and its harmonious entry into civilized world community remain for that matter, hardly practicable at all, unless political culture is humanized, and political education of such a kind propagated that would help society overcome the backwardness, the pre-modernity of prevailing visions of justice, democracy, law and order, and the relationship of the individual and the state.

  • 245. Subjunctive (or conditional) mood
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    The following examples of sentences may also be regarded as sentences of unreal conditions for the present and future:

    1. I wish I knew it. (Как жаль, что я этого не знаю).
    2. I fear lest he should be late. (Я боюсь, как бы он не опоздал).
    3. He spoke as if he were a doctor. (Он говорил так, как-будто он доктор).
    4. I suggest that he should go there too. (Я предлагаю, чтобы он тоже туда пошел).
    5. Knew Helen his address she would visit him. (Знай Елена его адрес, она бы навестила его).
    6. It is necessary that he should come. (Необходимо, чтобы он пришел).
  • 246. Task for the laboratory work
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    The DELIMITED WITH TAB option can be used to specify files which contain fields separated from each other by tabs rather than commas. The DELIMITED WITH <delimiter> option can be used to indicate that character fields are delimited by a character other than the quotation mark. The DELIMITED WITH BLANK option can be used to specify files which contain fields separated by spaces instead of commas. The file extension is assumed to be .TXT for all delimited files.

  • 247. Techno
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    Это всего лишь предельно простой ритм и несколько специфичных, зачастую синтезированных, звуков. Это Techno с небольшим количеством различных шумов. С точки зрения литературного описания Minimal Techno не представляет собой особенного интереса, так как это можно сделать с помощью одного предложения. Однако с музыкальной точки зрения этот стиль весьма интересен и оригинален именно из-за максимальной простоты минимала. Это можно сравнить с простотой струнного квартета по отношению к большому симфоническому оркестру (однако при этом ведь то, что делают квартеты, не становится менее любопытным). Когда House и Techno впервые появились в мировой музыкальной тусовке в середине 80-х годов, запись альбомов была сведена к минимуму. По мере дальнейшего развития искусства сэмплирования и программирования, музыка становилась более многослойной с профессиональным звуком - для некоторых это стало движением вперед, для других - ненужным сочетанием стилей. В ответ на растущие объему музыкального производства лидеры Minimalist Techno отказались практически ото всего за исключением выделенных барабанных программ и синтезаторных или секвенсорных партий. Такие детройтские музыканты, как Jeff Mills и Plastikman возглавили направление, а позднее прибавились Surgeon, Oliver Ho и Stewart Walker, также привнесшие с собой новые веяния. Минимал - это минималистическое Techno. Что такое минимализм? Это выражение максимума посредством минимума. Другими словами, минимальными средствами - максимально возможный результат. Minimal - это музыка, в которую мало чего намешано, она состоит из небольшого числа компонентов, между которых можно заметить звуковые пустоты. Но эти компоненты медленно, но верно изменяются, трансформируются в нечто совсем другое, чем то, что было в начале. Minimal может быть очень близок к Ambient, а может наоборот, к Noise. Из Minimal Techno назову несколько значимых имён. Одним из наиболее известных сподвижников на этом поприще является канадец Ричи Хотин, более известный под псевдонимом Plastikman. Ещё довольно известен в этой сфере немец Роланд Каспер (Roland Casper), а также немецкий проект "Oval". Среди близких направлений - Drone (жужжание). Оно характеризуется жужжащим или гудящим характером звучания. К этому очень близка музыка финской группы "Pansonic".Еще бы я отметил такое направление как Noise (нойз, шум) и самое радикальное ответвление Japanoise - это по определению минималистическое направление, т.к. шумом и грохотом много не выразишь. Тут бесспорными лидерами и гуру являются японцы Merzbow и Aube, а также поляк Zbignew Karkowski. Неугомонный Мерзбоу еще с 80-х гонит человеконенавистнические нойз-альбомы, наполненные патологическим скрежетом, свистом и грохотом. Его дискография исчисляется сотнями альбомов. К нойзу, не лишенному некоторой доли музыкальности я бы еще приплел альбом "Constant Shallowness Leads To Evil" совершенно безумной и гениальной группы Coil. На поприще электронного минимализма большими авторитетами являются бывший барабанщик "NaPALm Death" Мик Харрис (проект "LULL") и финский музыкант Vladislav Delay. Еще могу хорошо отозваться о творчестве германского музыканта Томаса Фельмана (один из участников The ORB). На мой взгляд, минимализм - очень интересная музыка, беда только в том, что диски с альбомами таких музыкантов просто так достать невозможно (надо поискать). Проблема ещё в том, что электронные музыканты участвуют в очень многих проектах и издают свою музыку на множестве маленьких лейблов под множеством разных имён. Самые известные лейблы, выпускающие такую музыку - это "Mille Plateaux", "Basic Channel", "Science", "Staalplaat".

  • 248. Telecommunications
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    Late in the nineteenth century communications facilities were augmented by a new invention telephone. In the USA its use slowly expanded, and by 1900 the American Telephone and Telegraph Company controlled 855,000 telephones; but elsewhere the telephone made little headway until the twentieth century. After 1900, however, telephone installations extended much more rapidly in all the wealthier countries. The number of telephones in use in the world grew at almost 100 per cent per decade. But long-distance telephone services gradually developed and began to compete with telegraphic business. A greater contribution to long-range communication came with the development of wireless. Before the outbreak of the First World War wireless telegraphy was established as a means of regular communication with ships at sea, and provided a valuable supplement to existing telegraph lines and cables. In the next few years the telephone systems of all the chief countries were connected with each other by radio. Far more immediate was the influence that radio had through broadcasting and by television, which followed it at an interval of about twenty-five years.

  • 249. Thanksgiving Day
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    There are three traditions behind our Canadian Thanksgiving Day.

    1. Long ago, before the first Europeans arrived in North America, the farmers in Europe held celebrations at harvest time. To give thanks for their good fortune and the abundance of food, the farm workers filled a curved goat's horn with fruit and grain. This symbol was called a cornucopia or horn of plenty. When they came to Canada they brought this tradition with them.
    2. In the year 1578, the English navigator Martin Frobisher held a formal ceremony, in what is now called Newfoundland, to give thanks for surviving the long journey. He was later knighted and had an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean in northern Canada named after him - Frobisher Bay. Other settlers arrived and continued these ceremonies.
    3. The third came in the year 1621, in what is now the United States, when the Pilgrims celebrated their harvest in the New World. The Pilgrims were English colonists who had founded a permanent European settlement at Plymouth Massachusetts. By the 1750's, this joyous celebration was brought to Nova Scotia by American settlers from the south.

      At the same time, French settlers, having crossed the ocean and arrived in Canada with explorer Samuel de Champlain, also held huge feasts of thanks. They even formed "The Order of Good Cheer" and gladly shared their food with their Indian neighbours.

      After the Seven Year's War ended in 1763, the citizens of Halifax held a special day of Thanksgiving.

      The Americans who remained faithful to the government in England were known as Loyalists. At the time of the American revolution, they moved to canada and spread the Thanksgiving celebration to other parts of the country. many of the new English settlers from Great Britain were also used to having a harvest celebration in their churches every autumn. Eventually in 1879, Parliament declared November 6th a day of Thanksgiving and a national holiday. Over the years many dates were used for Thanksgiving, the most popular was the 3rd Monday in October. After World War I, both Armistice Day and Thanksgiving were celebrated on the Monday of the week in which November 11th occurred. Ten years later, in 1931, the two days became separate holidays and Armistice Day was renamed Remembrance Day. Finally, on January 31st, 1957, Parliament proclaimed....
  • 250. The Archangel Cathedral
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    The Cathedral was first decorated with frescoes in 1564-1565. Some fragments of those painting have survived in the loggia of the western portal and in the chancel. In 1652, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich gave orders that “the Church of the Archangel Michael be painted up anew and the old paintings be scraped off”. The work was completed in 1666. Taking part in it were nearly a hundred artists from Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kastroma and other cities, supervised by the renowned masters Stepan Rezanets and Simon Ushakov. For many years the frescoes of the Archangel Cathedral remained obscured by the 18th-19th century overpaint and a thick layer of dust and soot. It was only in the 1950s that restorers happened to uncover the well-preserved 17th century paintings. One can mow see that the vaults and upper tiers of the southern and northern walls of the cathedral are traditionally decorated with frescoes illustrating episodes from the Gospel. An appreciable part of the frescoes feature miracles worked be the Archangel Michael who helped people in their efforts to establish and consolidate Christian faith and in their strivings towards goodness and justice. The composition are majestic and monumental, while the radiant festive colour gamut gives one a feeling of jubilation. Particularly vivid are the battle scenes reminding one of the nations long and hard struggle for the liberation and unification of the Russian lands. A distinctive feature of the Archangel Cathedral collection is a vast gallery of idealized images of historical personalities comprising over sixty conventionalized portraits of Russian princes. Painted on the pillars are the images of Vladimir Kievsky (died in 1015), Andrei Bogolyubky (apr. 1111-1174), Alexander Nevsky (apr. 1220-1263) and other princes included in the pantheon of Russian saints. The images of the princes buried in the Cathedral are places directly over the tombstones.

  • 251. The capturing
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    °°°°°°°±±±±±±²²²²²ÛÛÛÛ + ÛÛÛÛ²²²²²±±±±±±°°°°°°°

  • 252. The Castles of England
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    King Edwards new works were, however, put to the test by his son Edward II (1307-27), whose reign saw a resurgence of discontent among the barons on a scale not seen since the reign of his grandfather. Once again the Tower played a crucial role in the attempt to maintain royal authority and as a royal refuge. Edward II did little more than improve the walls put up by his father, but he was a regular resident during his turbulent reign and he moved his own lodgings from the Wakefield Tower and St Thomass Tower to the area round the present Lanthorn Tower. The old royal lodgings were now used for his courtiers and for the storage of official papers by the Kings Wardrobe (a department of government which dealt with royal supplies). The use of the Tower for functions other than military and residential had been started by Edward I who put up a large new building to house the Royal Mint and began to use the castle as a place for storing records. As early as the reign of Henry III the castle had already been in regular use as a prison: Hubert de Burgh, Chief Justiciar of England was incarcerated in 1232 and the Welsh Prince Gruffydd was imprisoned there between 1241 and 1244, when he fell to his death in a bid to escape. The Tower also served as a treasury (the Crown Jewels were moved from Westminster Abbey to the Tower in 1303) and as a showplace for the Kings animals.
    After the unstable reign of Edward II came that of Edward III (1327-77). Edward IIIs works at the Tower were fairly minor, but he did put up a new gatehouse between the Lanthorn Tower and the Salt Tower, together with the Cradle Tower and its postern (a small subsidiary entrance), a further postern behind the Byward Tower and another at the Develin Tower. He was also responsible for rebuilding the upper parts of the Bloody Tower and creating the vault over the gate passage, but his most substantial achievement was to extend the Tower Wharf eastwards as far as St Thomass Tower. This was completed in its present form by his successor Richard II (1377-99).


  • 253. The Church of England
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    High church was associated with the Tractarian movement began about 1833 and ended in 1845 with John Henry Newman's conversion to Roman Catholicism. It was also called the Oxford Movement because Newman, a fellow of Oriel College (part of Oxford University) and vicar of St. Mary's, the University church, and others were based there when they began the Tracts for the Times in 1833. There were exactly 90 Tracts, the majority written by Newman, arguing in general that the truth of the doctrines of the Church of England rested on the modern church's position as the direct descendant of the church established by the Apostles. Pretty obviously, such an argument was a conservative answer to the various contemporary challenges to the authority of religion in general, Christianity in particular, and specifically Anglicanism Catholicism, fueled by the same need for reassurance as was the Evangelical revival. Since the 16th century the Church of England had prided itself on being the via media, or middle road, between Roman Catholicism and a more radical Protestantism.

  • 254. The cinema in Russia today
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    If some fifteen years ago under the socialism, our film industry aimed to make better films filled with love, friendship, struggle for the cause of peace and justice, nowadays many of the film tycoons (магнат; заправила; шишка; воротила; «акула»; тайкун) in our country have found the exactly opposite solution making stupid third-rate comedies and action films about prostitutes and killers. Cinema in Russia has been gradually becoming Americanised. Of course, Hollywood is a great film centre, but they on the one hand try to lure the public back into the cinema with all sorts of films with an accent on horror and the lowest kind of pornography and on the other hand propagandise violence, promiscuity and individualism. The most recent box-office successes combine all features in a blend of savagery, racialism, anti-socialism, sexual degradation and violation! It works for with a certain category of cinema-lovers typically teenagers and spiritually sick people.

  • 255. The cities of USA
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    Los Angeles - the City of Angels - is a city built on dreams. The dream of the immigrant seeking a new beginning, the dream of Hollywood with its promise of a life of glamour and riches, the dream of wide open spaces and sunny golden days. In the Bunker Hill/Historic Core Angels Walk you will experience these dreams in the L.A. that exists today, in an L.A. that thrived almost a century ago and in an L.A. that existed only in imagination. You'll see a Victorian's work of what a futuristic building would look like in the year 2000 and its splendors will take your breath away. Shop for pigs' snouts and exotic medicinal roots in a bustling indoor-market. Hear water fountains crash like ocean waves in a dramatic water garden that covers more than an acre. See a headless businessman take out his frustrations on an office building and see a library topped by a golden pyramid. Journey through the pages of Raymond Chandler and through the scripts of Blade Runner, Speed, Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Chinatown. Ride into history on the shortest railway in the world. All this and more is here in Downtown Los Angeles within a square mile (or two). And you can see them all just by taking a short journey. There we can find also Victor Clothing Company a 100-foot tall mural depicting Anthony Quinn in his Oscar winning role as Zorba the Greek by mural artist Eloy Torrez, adorns the Victor Clothing Company, a prominent establishment specializing in wedding outfits. The star-struck owner felt that the accomplished actor, though portraying a Greek, exuded his Latin presence. The Broadway of course, which offers a colorful variety of shops and eateries in an open bazaar-like atmosphere. Music wafts out of many of the stores on this highly successful and important retail thoroughfare creating a very lively street scene. And as a simbol of LA The Million Dollar Theater. The Million Dollar Theater is one of America's first motion picture palaces. It was built with a flourish by showman Sid Grauman in 1918 at a cost of $1 million. The theater was designed by William L. Woolett, and its flamboyant facade is in the architectural style known as Churrigueresque. Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin were among those who attended the opening night, February 1, 1918. The 2,200-seat auditorium resembles a Spanish Colonial cathedral. The floors above the theater once housed the offices of The Metropolitan Water District. William Mulholland was the visionary chief engineer and was responsible for (some might say guilty of) creating the water supply that fueled L. A.'s spectacular growth in the 20's, 30's and 40's. The movie Chinatown dramatized this story providing even more mystery and intrigue. The offices were later converted into apartments, where it is said some of Hollywood's most notable faces had residences.

  • 256. The conflicts of the modern world. A competitive society
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    The main idea is that the first thousand male human beings were ever gathered together, they belonged to an army, and large-scale slaughter of people happened soon afterwards. Moreover, the first army carried such weapons as spears, knives, axes, perhaps bows and arrows and its strength did not lie in mere members but in discipline and organisation. In addition, drill is what transforms a mob of individual fighters into an army. Therefore, the basic forms of military drill are among the most unchanging elements of human civilisation. Though every man died his own death, what happened was quite impersonal during the battle of well-drilled armies. The result is that thousands of men would die in half an hour, in an area not bigger than a couple of two football fields. Consequently, a question immediately comes to mind: How could men do this? The reason is that a formation of drilled men has a different psychology, which tends to overpower the personal identity and fears of the individuals. In conclusion, people will kill if they find themselves in a situation where their own survival is threatened and due to this anybody can be persuaded and manipulated in this way.

  • 257. The Doctrine of the "Mysterious Female" in Taoism
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    For an understanding of the Taoist inner alchemy, two pairs of interrelated concepts are of predominant importance: natural essence (hsing) and vitality (ming); precelestial or prenatal (hsian t'ian) and postcelestial or postnatal (hou t'ian). The Taoist texts explain these concepts thus: The teaching about alchemical melting is the teaching of the method of melting of the natural essence and vitality to make them perfect. The law of the natural essence and vitality has two sides: the natural essence given by Heaven, which must be nurtured, and the natural essence of the pneumatic quality, which must be overcome. The vitality which is confirmed in separation must be pacified; bodily vitality must be fed. These are the principal two sides of the teaching of the Way (Tung Te-ning, a Taoist of the 18th century, commentary on the "Chapters of the Insight into the Truth" of Chang Potuan, 11 A.D.). A famous representative of inner alchemy, Wu Ch'ung-hsti (born in 1574), also tells us that precelestial nature is the pneuma received by the foetus at the time of conception, and the postcelestial one is the pneuma or energy received by a foetus due to the breathing of its mother or (after its birth) through its own inhalations. The first pneuma is concentrated in the navel, the second one in the nostrils. The inner alchemy is directed towards the harmonization of the "natural essence" and "vitality," the elimination of any collision between them. When this purpose is realized, an "elixir of immortality" appears inside the body of an adept which, in turn, changes itself into the so-called "immortal embryo" (hsian t'ai) growing into the state of the new immortal body of the alchemist. Therefore, the body of the Taoist is a female body, maternal body, and the adept himself or herself appears to be his or her own mother, like Lao-tar of the cosmological myth, who also was, as we have seen, the mother of himself/herself. Certainly, "immortal embryo" is a fruit of the conjugality or hierogamy of two principles, yin and yang, like everything in the world, but this sacred marriage has its place in the body of a Taoist who, like all beings, obtains his/her life in the maternal womb of the Mysterious Female, the great Way (Tao) of the universe. The body of the Taoist is a female body, too; in this body the conjunction of the principles takes its place and the fruit of this union is nothing other than the miraculously transfigured Taoist himself/herself. Thus the body of the Taoist is an analogy to the mystical body of Tao which is of paradigmatic value for the Taoist (Schipper, 1978, p.371).

  • 258. The History of English
    Другое Разное

    OEGothicDescription; Position; PronunciationExamplesaaShort back vowel; Mainly in open syllables, when the following one contains a back vowel; English cupmacian (to make), habban (to have)бaiLong back [a] vowel; In any kind of syllables; English starstбn (a stone), hбtan (to call)жaShort back vowel; Met mainly in closed syllables, or in open ones, if the next syllable contains a front vowel; English baddжg (a day), wжter (water)ж 'й, бLong back vowel; as Gothic й found only in some verbal forms, as Gothic б is the result of the so - called i - mutation; German za "hlenstж ' lon (stolen), hж ' lan (to cure)ei, ai, aShort front vowel; as Gothic i, ai noticed only in some infinitives, otherwise is result of the mutation of i; English bedsengean (to sing)йуLong front [e] vowel; resulted from the i - mutation of у; German Meerdйman (to judge)ii, ieShort front vowel; can be either stable or unstable, the unstable sound can interchange with ie and y; English stillbindan (to bind), niht - nyht (a night)нieLong front [i] vowel; also stable and unstable (mutating to э); English stealwrнtan (to write), hн - hэ (they)ou, auShort back vowel; English costcoren (chosen)уoLong back [o] vowel; English storescуc (divided)uu, auShort back vowel; used only when the next syllable contains another back vowel; English bookcuron (they chose)ъъLong back [u] vowel; English stoollъcan (to look)yuShort front vowel; i - mutation of u; German fu" nfgylden (golden)эъLong front [y] vowel; i - mutation of ъ, German glu "henmэs (mice)a.oA special short sound met only before nasals in closed syllablesmonn (a man)

  • 259. The history of Old English and its development
    Другое Разное

    Celtic tribes crossed the Channel and starting to settle in Britain already in the 7th century BC. The very word "Britain" seems to be the name given by the pre-Celtic inhabitants of the island, accepted by first Indo-Europeans. The Celts quickly spread over the island, and only in the north still existed non-Indo-European peoples which are sometimes called "Picts" (the name given by Romans). Picts lived in Scotland and on Shetland Islands and represented the most ancient population of the Isles, the origin of which is unknown. Picts do not seem to leave any features of their language to Indo-European population of Britain - the famous Irish and Welsh initial mutations of consonants can be the only sign of the substratum left by unknown nations of Britain. At the time the Celts reached Britain they spoke the common language, close to Gaulish in France. But later, when Celtic tribes occupied Ireland, Northern England, Wales, their tongues were divided according to tribal divisions. These languages will later become Welsh, Irish Gaelic, Cornish, but from that time no signs remained, because the Celts did not invent writing yet. Not much is left from Celtic languages in English. Though many place names and names for rivers are surely Celtic (like Usk - from Celtic *usce "water", or Avon - from *awin "river"), the morphology and phonetics are untouched by the Celtic influence. Some linguists state that the word down comes from Celtic *dún "down"; other examples of Celtic influence in place names are tne following:

  • 260. The history of railways (История железных дорог)
    Другое Разное

    Although а great deal of rail 1rаffiс in Britain is handled by block trains from point of origin to destination, about onefifth of the originating tonnage is less than a train-load. This means that wagons must be sorted on their journey. In Britain there are about 600 terminal points on a 12,000 mile network whitch is served by over 2500 freight trains made up of varying assortments of 249,000 wagons and 3972 locomotives, of witch 333 are electric. This requires the speed of calculation and the information storage and classification capacity of the modern computer, whitch has to be linked to points dealing with or generating traffic troughout the system.The computer input, witch is by punched cards, covers details of loading or unloading of wagons and their movements in trains, the composition of trains and their departures from and arrivals at yards ,and the whereabouts of locomotives. The computer output includes information on the balanse of locomotives at depots and yards, with particulars of when maintenanse examinations are due, the numbers of empty and loaded wagons, with aggregate weight and brake forse, and wheder their movement is on time, the location of empty wagons and a forecast of those that will become available, and the numbers of trains at any location, with collective train weigts and individual details of the component wagons.