Информация

1341. Two approches to the scientific management
Разное

An often repeated criticism of the scientific management approach is that it overemphasised productivity and underemphasised human nature. This criticism is well expressed by Amitai Etzioni, who wrote that "although Taylor originally set out to study the interaction between human characteristics and the characteristics of the machine, the relationship between these two elements which make up the industrial work process, he ended up by focusing on a far more limited subject: the physical characteristics of the human body in routine jobs - e.g., shovelling coal or picking up loads. Eventually Taylor came to work human and machine resources not so much as mutually adapt able, but rather man functioning as an appendage to the industrial machine". Similar criticism could be levelled at other movements within the scientific management approach. The Scientific Management approach directed to create scientific, specialized, technocratic environment which makes it clear how to be more productive and maximize rewards. But his theory can be seen as one-sided. You cannot interpret the human being as a machine as it has it's own interest, it's own needs, that the human being is a entity of the different moods and emotions. He hasn't counted that the motivating factor for employees can be not only monetary, worker can be motivated for example by the interest of working in the particular field (e.g. teachers do not owe a lot of money from their work but they are usually motivated by the interest working with people; e.g. some tourists guides also do not owe a lot of money but they are interested in meeting new people and travelling), experience that he/she would gain through being on particular working place (e.g. nurse doesn't get much money for her work, but she wants to get more experience with time). It is also noted that
1342. Tycho Brahe
Разное

Tycho is perhaps best known today for his theory of the solar system which is based on a stationary Earth round which the Moon and Sun revolve. The other planets, according to Tycho's theory, revolve round the Sun. In fact in his younger days Tycho had been convinced by Copernicus' Sun centred model but his firm belief that theory must be supported by experimental evidence led him away. The problem was, of course, that in the Sun centred model of Copernicus a parallax shift should be observed but despite his attempts to measure such a shift, Tycho could detect none. There were two possibilities to explain this: either the Earth was fixed, or the scale of the universe was unbelievably large. We know today that it is the second of these which is true, and that the scale is such that Tycho would have had no hope in measuring parallax with his instruments. The first measurement of the parallax of a star was in 1838 by Bessel who found 0.3" for the parallax of 61 Cygni. Despite the quality of Tycho's measurements, this value in about 100 times smaller that Tycho's observational errors. In fact Tycho was not the first to propose the Earth centred model with the planets rotating round the Sun for Erasmus Reinhold had done so a few years earlier. However Rosen in argues convincingly that Tycho did not know of Reinhold's theory.
1343. Types of right concept
Юриспруденция, право, государство

Platon's ideas about the policy and the government are some similar to ideas Hobbes. Gobbs's doctrine about the state is based on concept of the natural law. The first basic natural law says: everyone should achieve the piece by all means available at his order and if it cannot receive the piece, it can search and use all means and advantages to war. Directly second law follows from this law: everyone should be ready to refuse the right on everything when others too wish it as it counts this refusal necessary for the piece and self-defense. Besides refusal of the rights there can be still a carry of these rights. The third natural law says, that people should adhere to own contracts. In this law to be function of validity. The theory of the State of Gobbs logically follows from his theory of the right and morals. The basis of the state lays in reasonable aspiration of people to self-preservation. From here it is clear, that the confidence of the safety is necessary for observance of natural laws, and for achievement of safety there is no other way as connection of sufficient quantity of people for mutual protection. For general welfare, people, as Gobbs considers, should agree to refuse the rights in the name of the piece and preservation of a life and to be united together for performance of the agreement. Such contract or such transferring of the rights also is formation of the state. Gobbs defines the state as follows: " The state is one person or assembly which will by virtue of the agreement of many people is the law for all of them as it can use forces and abilities of everyone for maintenance of the general piece and protection.
1344. Tрихомониаз
Медицина, физкультура, здравоохранение

Правильно спланированные и проведенные клинические исследования показали, что рекомендованные режимы приема метронидазола обеспечивают излечение на уровне 90% - 95% случаев. Гарантированное лечение ВСЕХ половых партнеров заболевшего еще больше повышает эффективность лечения. Именно такой подход способствует не только исчезновению проявлений трихомониаза, микробиологическому излечению (исчезновению T. vaginalis в мазках), но и уменьшают вероятность полового пути заражения других лиц. Гель метронидазола не следует назначать, поскольку он эффективен только в случае бактериального вагиноза. Это же касается и других местно применяемых препаратов, поскольку при таком применении не возможно достичь лечебной концентрации антибактериального средства (в том числе и метронидазола) во влагалище, уретре и железистой ткани, местах локализации T. vaginalis. А потому эффективность такого лечения трихомониаза, как правило, не превышает 50%.
1345. U.S. Culture
Культура и искусство

Characteristics such as democracy and equality flourished in the American environment long before taking firm root in European societies, where the ideals originated. As early as the 1780s, Michel Guillaume Jean de Crиvecoeur, a French writer living in Pennsylvania who wrote under the pseudonym J. Hector St. John, was impressed by the democratic nature of early American society. It was not until the 19th century that these tendencies in America were most fully expressed. When French political writer Alexis de Tocqueville, an acute social observer, traveled through the United States in the 1830s, he provided an unusually penetrating portrait of the nature of democracy in America and its cultural consequences. He commented that in all areas of culturefamily life, law, arts, philosophy, and dressAmericans were inclined to emphasize the ordinary and easily accessible, rather than the unique and complex. His insight is as relevant today as it was when de Tocqueville visited the United States. As a result, American culture is more often defined by its popular and democratically inclusive features, such as blockbuster movies, television comedies, sports stars, and fast food, than by its more cultivated aspects as performed in theaters, published in books, or worked in museums and galleries. Even the fine arts in modern America often partake of the energy and forms of popular culture, and modern arts are often a product of the fusion of fine and popular arts.
1346. U.S. Economy
Экономика

Those levels of production, consumption, and spending make the U.S. economy by far the largest economy the world has ever knowndespite the fact that some other nations have far more people, land, or other resources. Through most of the 20th century, U.S. citizens also enjoyed the highest material standards of living in the world. Some nations have higher per capita (per person) incomes than the United States. However, these comparisons are based on international exchange rates, which set the value of a countrys currency based on a narrow range of goods and services traded between nations. Most economists agree that the United States has a higher per capita income based on the total value of goods and services that households consume. American prosperity has attracted worldwide attention and imitation. There are several key reasons why the U.S. economy has been so successful and other reasons why, in the 21st century, it is possible that some other industrialized nations will surpass the U.S. standard of living. To understand those historical and possible future events, it is important first to understand what an economic system is and how that system affects the way people make decisions about buying, selling, spending, saving, investing, working, and taking time for leisure activities.
1347. UK Parliament
Иностранные языки

Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. This means it has a monarch as its Head of the State. The monarch reigns with the support of Parliament. The UK Parliament is one of the oldest representative assemblies in the world, having its origin in the mid-13th century. By the 1250s King Henry III (1216-1272) was running into difficulties with his nobility. They were angry at the cost of his schemes, such as rebuilding of Westminster Abbey and a proposed campaign to make one of his youngest sons King of Sicily. The provisions of Oxford (1258), imposed on Henry by his barons, established a permanent baronial council which took control of certain key appointments. The leader of the baronial movement was Simon de Montfort, the Earl of Leister. In 1259 the Provisions of Westminster reformed the common law. Henry eventually renounced both sets of provisions and challenged the barons. Civil war broke out in 1264, initially going well for Simon de Montfort. During the conflict he sought to boost his baronial support by summoning knights of the shires and burgesses to attend his parliament. This was the first time that commoners had been represented. De Montfort was killed at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, but his innovation of summoning the commons to attend parliaments was repeated in later years and soon became standard. Thus it is from him that the modern idea of a representative parliament derives. From the 14th century parliamentary government in the United Kingdom has been based on a two-chamber system. The House of Lords (the upper house) and the House of Commons (the lower house) sit separately and are constituted on entirely different principles. In the 14th century, under King Edward III (1327-1377) it was accepted that there should be no taxation without parliamentary consent, still a fundamental principle of today. Two distinct Houses of Parliament were emerging for the first time, with the “Commons” sitting apart from the “Upper House” form 1342. The “Good Parliament” of 1376 saw the election of the first Speaker, Thomas Hungerford, to represent the Commons. It also saw the use of “impeachment”, whereby the House of Commons as a body could accuse officials who had abused their authority and put them on trial before the Lords. In the 15th century the Commons gained equal law-making powers with the Lords, under King Henry V. The 16th century saw the legal union of Wales which had long been subject to the English crown with England under King Henry VIII (1509-1547). Henrys reign also saw the Church of England break away from the Roman Catholic Church. The “Gunpowder Plot” of 1605 may have been hatched when it became clear that the new King, James I, intended to do nothing to ease the plight of the Catholics in the country. In the 17th century, tensions increased between parliament and monarch, such that in 1641 the King and Parliament could not agree on the control of troops for repression of the Irish Rebellion. Civil war broke out the following year, leading to the execution of King Charles I in January 1649. Following the restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, the role of Parliament was enhanced by the events of 1668-1669 (the “Glorious Revolution” and the passage of the Bull of Rights which established the authority of Parliament over the King, the enshrined in law the principle of freedom of speech in parliamentary debates. 1707 brought the Union with Scotland and the first Parliament of Great Britain. Growing pressure for reform of parliament in the 18th and 19th centuries led to a series of Reform Acts which extended the electoral franchise to most men (over 21) in 1867 and finally to women over 21 in 1928. The legislative primacy of the House of Commons over the Lords was confirmed in the 20th century by the passing of the Parliamentary Acts of 1911 and 1949.
1348. Ukraine
География

Economyoverwork: After Russia, the Ukrainian republic was far and away the most important economic component of the former Soviet Union, producing about four times the output of the next-ranking republic. Its fertile black soil generated more than one-fourth of Soviet agricultural output, and its farms provided substantial quantities of meat, milk, grain, and vegetables to other republics. Likewise, its diversified heavy industry supplied equipment and raw materials to industrial and mining sites in other regions of the former USSR. Ukraine depends on imports of energy, especially natural gas. Shortly after the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, the Ukrainian Government liberalized most prices and erected a legal framework for privatization, but widespread resistance to reform within the government and the legislature soon stalled reform efforts and led to some backtracking. Output in 1992-98 fell to less than half the 1991 level. Loose monetary policies pushed inflation to hyperinflationary levels in late 1993. Since his election in July 1994, President KUCHMA has pushed economic reforms, maintained financial discipline, and tried to remove almost all remaining controls over prices and foreign trade. The onset of the financial crisis in Russia dashed Ukraine's hopes for its first year of economic growth in 1998 due to a sharp fall in export revenue and reduced domestic demand. Although administrative currency controls will be lifted in early 1999, they are likely to be reimposed when the hryvnia next comes under pressure. The currency is only likely to collapse further if Ukraine abandons tight monetary policies or threatens default. Despite increasing pressure from the IMF to accelerate reform, significant economic restructuring remains unlikely in 1999.
1349. Ultra DMA
Компьютеры, программирование

Однако многие владельцы винчестеров с Ultra DMA совершенно справедливо могут возразить, что после замены им "обычного" винчестера они почувствовали заметный прирост скорости. Так оно и есть - после принятия стандарта Ultra ATA несколько фирм анонсировали новые модели винчестеров с этим интерфейсом. Первым и наиболее популярным был Quantum Fireball ST, существенно опередивший другие популярные модели с интерфейсом ATA-2. Однако этот отрыв был обусловлен не новым интерфейсом, а повышенной плотностью записи на дисках и увеличением эффективности внутреннего контроллера. В этом смысле ситуация с UDMA повторяет ситуацию со SCSI: многие пользователи выбирают винчестеры SCSI за их высокую скорость работы, ошибочно приписывая ее преимуществам SCSI перед EIDE. На самом же деле многие модели винчестеров, выпускаемые в вариантах и EIDE, и SCSI, имеют один и тот же гермоблок, те же технические характеристики, однако скоростные, а значит, и дорогие, модели винчестеров не являются массовыми, и их гораздо более выгодно выпускать только в SCSI-варианте. Поэтому по-настоящему чистым будет эксперимент с заменой системной платы с обычным EIDE-контроллером на плату с поддержкой Ultra DMA при одном и том же скоростном винчестере с Ultra DMA. А такие эксперименты показывают, что на обычной пользовательской системе с Windows 95 прироста эффективности либо нет вообще, либо он составляет единицы процентов. Более заметный прирост могут дать только системы со сбалансированной ОС и высокой загрузкой.
1350. Under what conditions will the oligopolists agree to co-operate in their decisions
Экономика
When the firms decide to co-operate, they should implement the following policies to be able to maximize their profits.
1. They should make sure that there exists an entrance barrier to the market in which they operate in order to prevent other firms from selling a good at an old price after they increase prices for their output. If the barriers do not exist, then the increase in prices would attract other producers. The supply would then increase and prices would fall below the monopoly level, co-operating firms aim to maintain.
2. They should decide on the general pattern of production. This could be done by estimating market demand and by calculating marginal profit for all levels of production. Firms need to produce so that their MC=MR (we assume that all firms have similar production costs). The monopoly production level would maximize revenues of each of the firms (see Pic. A). The demand curve for the output is in the region of D. The marginal revenue that corresponds to that curve is MR. The monopoly production level equals to Qm, which corresponds to the point where MR crosses MC. The monopoly price equals Pm. The current price equals Pc and the current output Qc. That means that the current balance is the same as it would be under competition.
3. Each participant in co-operation agreement should have production quotas. The monopoly production Qm should be divided between all members of the treaty. For example, each firm could produce a 1/15 share of Qm per month. If all the firms had identical cost functions it would be equivalent to recommending them to balance their production till their marginal costs become equal to the market marginal revenue (MR). Until the sum of the monthly outputs of all producers equals Qm, it is possible to maintain the monopoly price.
1351. Uni ja unenaod (estonii)
Разное

Peale meditsiiniliste probleemide otsiti unenägudelt abi ka riiklikes küsimustes. Spartas toimusid iga-aastased ,,eforad" viie körgema riigiametniku templiuned, mille järel koostati või muudeti seadusi. Et riigimeeste võimed jäid tihtipeale kasinaks, loodi riiklike küsimuste tähtsust arvestades spetsiaalsed oraaklid, elukutselised ennustajad. Kuulsaim oraakel o'li Delfis, Kesk-Kreekas Korinthose lahe ääres Parnassose mäe nõlval. Delfi oraakli tegutsemisest on teateid alates VII saj.e.Kr. Ekstaatilisse seisundisse viidud naisprohvet püütia andis tähtsaid ennustusi. Muuseas peeti Delfis veel nn. püütiamänge, mis olid muusikalis-sportlikud võistlused ja mida peeti nagu olümpiamängegi iga nelja aasta järel. Püütiamänge peeti alates 582. aastast e.Kr. kuni IV sajandini e.Kr., seega umbes 900 aastat.
1352. United states of America: geography, history, culture
Иностранные языки
1353. Unix-подобные системы
Компьютеры, программирование

В 1964 году появились компьютеры третьего поколения, для которых возможности BESYS уже не подходили. Высотский и его коллеги приняли решение не разрабатывать новую собственную операционную систему, а подключиться к совместному проекту General Electric и Массачусетского технологического института Multics. Телекоммуникационный гигант AT&T, в состав которого входили Bell Labs, оказал проекту существенную поддержку, но в 1969 году вышел из проекта, поскольку он не приносил никаких финансовых выгод. Первоначально UNIX была разработана в конце 1960-х годов сотрудниками Bell Labs, в первую очередь Кеном Томпсоном, Денисом Ритчи и Дугласом МакИлроем. В 1969 году Кен Томпсон, стремясь реализовать идеи, которые были положены в основу MULTICS, но на более скромном аппаратном обеспечении (DEC PDP-7), написал первую версию новой операционной системы, а Брайан Керниган придумал для неё название UNICS (UNIplexed Information and Computing System) в противовес MULTICS (MULTIplexed Information and Computing Service). Позже это название сократилось до UNIX.
1354. Uranium enrichment
Иностранные языки

There are a number of other uranium enrichment technologies such as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS), molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS), chemical reaction by isotope selective laser activation (CRISLA), and chemical and ion exchange enrichment that have been developed as well, but they are mostly still in the experimental or demonstration stage and have not yet been used to enrich commercial or military quantities of uranium. The AVLIS, CRISLA, and MLIS processes make use of the slight difference in atomic properties of U-235 and U-238 to allow powerful lasers to preferentially excite or ionize one isotope over the other. AVLIS makes use of uranium metal as a feed material and electric fields to separate the positively charged U-235 ions from the neutral U-238 atoms. MLIS and CRISLA on the other hand use uranium hexafluoride mixed with other process gases as a feed material and use two different lasers to excite and then chemically alter the uranium hexafluoride molecules containing U-235, which can then be separated from those molecules containing U-238 that remained unaffected by the lasers. AVLIS was pursued for commercial use by the U.S. Enrichment Corporation, but was abandoned in the late 1990s as being unprofitable while other countries have also abandoned all known AVLIS and MLIS production programs as well. The chemical and ion exchange enrichment processes were developed by the French and the Japanese. These techniques make use of the very slight differences in the reaction chemistry of the U-235 and U-238 atoms. Through the use of appropriate solvents, the uranium can be separated into an enriched section (contained in one solvent stream) and a depleted stream (contained in a different solvent that does not mix with the first in the same way that oil and water do not mix). This enrichment technique was also pursued by Iraq. Currently all known programs involving this technique have been closed since at least the early 1990s. All of these technologies have been demonstrated on the small scale and some, like AVLIS, have gone further along in the development process that would be necessary to scale up to production level facilities. This would be particularly true if the profitability of the plant was not an issue and it was only meant to enrich the reasonably modest quantities of HEU necessary for one to two bombs per year. Currently, however, the gas centrifuge appears to be the primary technology of choice for both future commercial enrichment as well as for potential nuclear weapons proliferation.
1355. Urbanization and Urban Issues
Разное

Order can be easily found in physics or mathematics or any other science where basics are precisely defined, but it becomes much harder task to identify any order in a science where basics are blurry. History suggests that there were greater number scientists discovering laws of nature as oppose to laws of social behavior. It is probably coming from a notion that people tend to discover more obvious stuff in stead of theoretical. If we look at the way of living at the beginning of science we can surely say that it was more rural type of living than urban. It means simple fact that people did not interact with one another as much as we do in modern life and therefore science of nature was more obvious and had more practical use than just some theoretical study of hypothetical society that did not even exist at that time in the way we mean and study today. Modern economy has changed the way we live, interact with one another and behave under certain circumstances. It has even changed the way in which science is being practiced. In the past only wealthy people could afford to practice science, they were discovering things without any bios or any expectations from their discoveries, they were doing it just to satisfy their curiosity. Now days science became a profession and we see more and more individuals who are in to science for only financial satisfaction. Big corporations as well as small business mainly interested in that science, outcome of which can improve their performance in achieving certain goals. Scientists are being told that do and what to study. Modern technology together with economical forces has changed our way of living. Sophisticated tools and chemicals yield to higher crops from the same soil. We are becoming less concerned with quality of the food we consume and only think of a price we pay. Farming is expensive in a sense where we can buy food from overseas for less. This is one of the main factors that forced farmers to move and settle in cities. Recent statistical data suggests that 60 % of the entire population will be living in cities by the year of 2030 oppose to 14% in 1950. These changes force us to find science that will be dealing with human behavior and/or interactions among the society, science that will help us understand what makes us choose one place over another. This might help us solve many questions in our life that have reputations of being unsolved. Throughout this essay I will be raising questions that I think have the greatest importance and will try to answer them in the best way possible.
1356. Use of the Topical Project Work “My Body” for Developing All Language Skills in Form 4
Разное

The research revealed the importance and usefulness of using the topical project work “My Body” at the English lessons. It also showed that the project work is an effective method of developing all language skills of young learners. With the help of the research the author realised that more students had arisen their interest in learning English and improved their practical skills in communication through English. This study proves also that the project work elevates the effectiveness of learning English. During the project work atmosphere in the class was very positive, friendly. The learners attitude to doing all types of tasks was positive and involved children to the learning process.
1357. USP: Уникальное торговое предложение
Реклама и PR

В-третьих, необходимо понять, не противоречит ли это свойство стандартным представлениям потребителя о хорошем товаре. Такие представления носят в психотехнологиях особое название: "Внутренний Стандарт". Такая ситуация нередка. Допустим, вы рекламируете стиральный порошок, с которым можно стирать вещи даже в холодной воде. Это важная отличительная особенность порошка, на которой можно построить сильное рекламное утверждение. Однако большинство хозяек имеют стандартное представление: для хорошей стирки нужна, прежде всего, горячая вода. Другая ситуация рекламируется молоко (не концентрированное и не сухое), которое может храниться без холодильника в течение длительного периода и при этом не содержит консервантов. Однако у большинства хозяек возникает подозрение, что в нем все-таки есть консерванты или какие-то иные вредные добавки. Рекламист должен предвидеть нежелательные реакции потенциальных потребителей и постараться нейтрализовать их.
1358. Valentine's Day
Литература
1359. Valenz der Verben
Разное
Interessant ist die Konzeption, die von K.-E. Sommerfeld und H. Schreiber vertreten ist. Sie unterscheiden 3 Arten der Valenz.
1. Die logische Valenz (in der Begriffstruktur). Unter der logischen Valenz werden begriffliche Relationen verstanden. Auf Grund dieser Valenz unterscheidet man begrifflich angelegte und begrifflich nicht angelegte Partner des Wortes. Z.B. „ein grьner Baum“, aber „eine gratze“.
2. Die semantische Valenz. (konkrete sprachliche Struktur) Hierunter ist die Tatsache zu verstehen, da? bestimmte Wцrter bestimmte Partner verlangen. Diese Partner mьssen bestimmte Bedeutungselemente besitzen, um eine Verbindung eingehen zu kцnnen. Und ьber diese Bedeutungselementeverfьgt nicht nur das Verb, sondern auch andere Wortarten.
3. Die syntaktische Valenz (konkrete sprachliche Struktur). Unter der syntaktischen Valenz wird die Tatsache verstanden, da? die Valenztrдger auf grund ihrer kategorialen Angehцrigkeit und auf Grund ihrer Verbindungsmittel syntaktische Rolle der Mitspieler und ihre morphologische Struktur der Mitspieler bestimmten z.B. Das Verb „danken“ fordert 3 Aktanten:
4. ein Substantiv im Nominativ;
5. ein Substantiv im Dativ;
6. eine Prдpositionalgruppe mit „fьr“;
1360. Varieties of capitalism in the globalizing world
История
1. www.polit.nnov.ru
2. www.kontinent.org
3. www.wikipedia.org
4. О множественности моделей капитализма см.: Crouch C . Capitalist Diversity and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
5. David Coates, “Models of Capitalism: growth and stagnation in the modern era”
6. Models Of Capitalism, “Debating Strengths And Weaknesses”
7. Федотова В.Г. Глобальный капитализм: три великие трансформации: социально-философский анализ взаимоотношений экономики и общества
8. http://www.ashgate.com/pdf/SamplePages/Globalization_The_Juggernaut_of_the_21st_Century_Intro.pdf
9. http://www.patriotica.ru/enemy/arin_kapkan.html

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