Информация

1221. The Black Death
Иностранные языки

Such was the form which the plague assumed in the fourteenth century, for the accompanying chest affection which appeared in all the countries whereof we have received any account, cannot, on a comparison with similar and familiar symptoms, be considered as any other than the inflammation of the lungs of modern medicine, a disease which at present only appears sporadically, and, owing to a putrid decomposition of the fluids, is probably combined with hemorrhages from the vessels of the lungs. Now, as every carbuncle, whether it be cutaneous or internal, generates in abundance the matter of contagion which has given rise to it, so, therefore, must the breath of the affected have been poisonous in this plague, and on this account its power of contagion wonderfully increased; wherefore the opinion appears incontrovertible, that owing to the accumulated numbers of the diseased, not only individual chambers and houses, but whole cities were infected, which, moreover, in the Middle Ages, were, with few exceptions, narrowly built, kept in a filthy state, and surrounded with stagnant ditches. Flight was, in consequence, of no avail to the timid; for even though they had sedulously avoided all communication with the diseased and the suspected, yet their clothes were saturated with the pestiferous atmosphere, and every inspiration imparted to them the seeds of the destructive malady, which, in the greater number of cases, germinated with but too much fertility. Add to which, the usual propagation of the plague through clothes, beds, and a thousand other things to which the pestilential poison adheres--a propagation which, from want of caution, must have been infinitely multiplied; and since articles of this kind, removed from the access of air, not only retain the matter of contagion for an indefinite period, but also increase its activity and engender it like a living being, frightful ill- consequences followed for many years after the first fury of the pestilence was past.
1222. The British Character and English Humour
Иностранные языки

Between Russian and British I found some common characteristics, such as the famous empire mentality. Great Britain, as we know, was once geographically very great and many British people still think or their land as great an strong. They still think that British is the "best." I can see similar in the Russian attitude. Here. perhaps I am close with my wife, even though she does not like to admit this mentality.
1223. The British language teaching
Иностранные языки
1224. The Business Cycles as a Form of Economic Development
Иностранные языки

This cycle is believed to be accounted for by time lags in information movements affecting the decision making of commercial firms. Firms react to the improvement of commercial situation through the increase in output through the full employment of the extent fixed capital assets. As a result, within a certain period of time the market gets flooded with commodities whose quantity becomes gradually excessive. The demand declines, prices drop, the produced commodities get accumulated in inventories, which informs entrepreneurs of the necessity to reduce output. However, this process takes some time. It takes some time for the information that the supply exceeds significantly the demand to get to the businessmen. Further it takes entrepreneurs some time to check this information and to make the decision to reduce production, some time is also necessary to materialize this decision (these are the time lags that generate the Kitchin cycles). Another relevant time lag is the lag between the materialization of the above mentioned decision (causing the capital assets to work well below the level of their full employment) and the decrease of the excessive amounts of commodities accumulated in inventories. Yet, after this decrease takes place one can observe the conditions for a new phase of growth of demand, prices, output, etc.
1225. The capturing
Разное

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1226. The Castles of England
Разное

King Edwards new works were, however, put to the test by his son Edward II (1307-27), whose reign saw a resurgence of discontent among the barons on a scale not seen since the reign of his grandfather. Once again the Tower played a crucial role in the attempt to maintain royal authority and as a royal refuge. Edward II did little more than improve the walls put up by his father, but he was a regular resident during his turbulent reign and he moved his own lodgings from the Wakefield Tower and St Thomass Tower to the area round the present Lanthorn Tower. The old royal lodgings were now used for his courtiers and for the storage of official papers by the Kings Wardrobe (a department of government which dealt with royal supplies). The use of the Tower for functions other than military and residential had been started by Edward I who put up a large new building to house the Royal Mint and began to use the castle as a place for storing records. As early as the reign of Henry III the castle had already been in regular use as a prison: Hubert de Burgh, Chief Justiciar of England was incarcerated in 1232 and the Welsh Prince Gruffydd was imprisoned there between 1241 and 1244, when he fell to his death in a bid to escape. The Tower also served as a treasury (the Crown Jewels were moved from Westminster Abbey to the Tower in 1303) and as a showplace for the Kings animals.
After the unstable reign of Edward II came that of Edward III (1327-77). Edward IIIs works at the Tower were fairly minor, but he did put up a new gatehouse between the Lanthorn Tower and the Salt Tower, together with the Cradle Tower and its postern (a small subsidiary entrance), a further postern behind the Byward Tower and another at the Develin Tower. He was also responsible for rebuilding the upper parts of the Bloody Tower and creating the vault over the gate passage, but his most substantial achievement was to extend the Tower Wharf eastwards as far as St Thomass Tower. This was completed in its present form by his successor Richard II (1377-99).
1227. The Church of England
Разное

High church was associated with the Tractarian movement began about 1833 and ended in 1845 with John Henry Newman's conversion to Roman Catholicism. It was also called the Oxford Movement because Newman, a fellow of Oriel College (part of Oxford University) and vicar of St. Mary's, the University church, and others were based there when they began the Tracts for the Times in 1833. There were exactly 90 Tracts, the majority written by Newman, arguing in general that the truth of the doctrines of the Church of England rested on the modern church's position as the direct descendant of the church established by the Apostles. Pretty obviously, such an argument was a conservative answer to the various contemporary challenges to the authority of religion in general, Christianity in particular, and specifically Anglicanism Catholicism, fueled by the same need for reassurance as was the Evangelical revival. Since the 16th century the Church of England had prided itself on being the via media, or middle road, between Roman Catholicism and a more radical Protestantism.
1228. The cinema in Russia today
Разное

If some fifteen years ago under the socialism, our film industry aimed to make better films filled with love, friendship, struggle for the cause of peace and justice, nowadays many of the film tycoons (магнат; заправила; шишка; воротила; «акула»; тайкун) in our country have found the exactly opposite solution making stupid third-rate comedies and action films about prostitutes and killers. Cinema in Russia has been gradually becoming Americanised. Of course, Hollywood is a great film centre, but they on the one hand try to lure the public back into the cinema with all sorts of films with an accent on horror and the lowest kind of pornography and on the other hand propagandise violence, promiscuity and individualism. The most recent box-office successes combine all features in a blend of savagery, racialism, anti-socialism, sexual degradation and violation! It works for with a certain category of cinema-lovers typically teenagers and spiritually sick people.
1229. The cities of USA
Разное

Los Angeles - the City of Angels - is a city built on dreams. The dream of the immigrant seeking a new beginning, the dream of Hollywood with its promise of a life of glamour and riches, the dream of wide open spaces and sunny golden days. In the Bunker Hill/Historic Core Angels Walk you will experience these dreams in the L.A. that exists today, in an L.A. that thrived almost a century ago and in an L.A. that existed only in imagination. You'll see a Victorian's work of what a futuristic building would look like in the year 2000 and its splendors will take your breath away. Shop for pigs' snouts and exotic medicinal roots in a bustling indoor-market. Hear water fountains crash like ocean waves in a dramatic water garden that covers more than an acre. See a headless businessman take out his frustrations on an office building and see a library topped by a golden pyramid. Journey through the pages of Raymond Chandler and through the scripts of Blade Runner, Speed, Who Framed Roger Rabbit and Chinatown. Ride into history on the shortest railway in the world. All this and more is here in Downtown Los Angeles within a square mile (or two). And you can see them all just by taking a short journey. There we can find also Victor Clothing Company a 100-foot tall mural depicting Anthony Quinn in his Oscar winning role as Zorba the Greek by mural artist Eloy Torrez, adorns the Victor Clothing Company, a prominent establishment specializing in wedding outfits. The star-struck owner felt that the accomplished actor, though portraying a Greek, exuded his Latin presence. The Broadway of course, which offers a colorful variety of shops and eateries in an open bazaar-like atmosphere. Music wafts out of many of the stores on this highly successful and important retail thoroughfare creating a very lively street scene. And as a simbol of LA The Million Dollar Theater. The Million Dollar Theater is one of America's first motion picture palaces. It was built with a flourish by showman Sid Grauman in 1918 at a cost of $1 million. The theater was designed by William L. Woolett, and its flamboyant facade is in the architectural style known as Churrigueresque. Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin were among those who attended the opening night, February 1, 1918. The 2,200-seat auditorium resembles a Spanish Colonial cathedral. The floors above the theater once housed the offices of The Metropolitan Water District. William Mulholland was the visionary chief engineer and was responsible for (some might say guilty of) creating the water supply that fueled L. A.'s spectacular growth in the 20's, 30's and 40's. The movie Chinatown dramatized this story providing even more mystery and intrigue. The offices were later converted into apartments, where it is said some of Hollywood's most notable faces had residences.
1230. The City of London and its role as a financial centre
Экономика

Assets - anything owned by an individual, company, legal body or government which has a cash value.Big Bang -a system of major changes which brought deregulation to the London Stock Exchange in 1986. Bill of Exchange - an officially signed promise to pay to the receiver of the bill, the stated at the fixed time. Bond - a certificate issued by the borrower as a receipt for a loan usually longer than 12 months; it indicates the interest rate and the date of repayment. Eurobond-an international certificate issued by the borrower for a long-term loan (from 5 to 15 years) in any European currency but not in the currency of the issuing bank.Securities-general term for stocks and shares of all types.Exchange-a market for the toll purchase of goods or securities. Stock Exchange-a market for short or long term transactions in securities . Commodity Exchange-a stable market for wholesale transactions in preferably commodities and raw materialsMoney Market-a market for money instruments with a period of validity of less than one year. Factoring- a business activity in which a company takes over the responsibility for collecting the debts of another company. Fund Management- managing investors funds on their behalf or advising investors on how to invest their funds. Financial Futures-legal contracts for the sale or purchase of financial products on a specified future date, at the price agreed in the present.Option-A contract giving the right to buy or sell financial instruments or goods for a stated period at a stated price.The London Bullion Market -The international gold and silver market in London where trade is done by a telephone or electronic links.HedgeThe purchase or sale futures contract as a temporary substitute for a transaction to be made at a later date Open-Ended Fund-A fund without a fixed number of shares Quite-edged loans -Loans issued on behalf of the Government to fund its spending.
1231. The Clash of Civilizations
Иностранные языки
References:
1. Fox, Jonathon. Ethnic minorities and the clash of civilizations: A quantitative analysis of Huntington's thesis. British Journal of Political Science. 32(3). 415-435.
2. Herzfeld, Michael. 1997. Anthropology and the politics of significance. Social Analysis. 4(3). 107-138.
3. Huntington. Samuel, 1993. The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72(3):22-49.
4. Graham, James. May, 2004. Samuel P. Huntington's Clash of Civilisations. www.HistoryOrb.com
5. Samuel P. Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), p. 43.
6. Clash of civilizations. Online resourses from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
7. Shireen T. Hunter, "The Future of Islam and the West: Clash of Civilizations or Peaceful Coexistence?", Fouad Ajami, M.E Ahrari, "The Clash of Civilizations: An Old Story or New Truth?", Yuksel Sezgin, "Does Islam Pose A Threat to the West?" Perceptions: Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 2, (June-August 2000)
8. Edward W. Said, "The Clash of Ignorance", The Nation, October 22 2001 and Mahmood Monshipouri, "The West's Modern Encounter With Islam: From Discourse to Reality".
9. Robert Marks, "The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order" (Book Rework).
10. Pippa Norris and Ronald Inglehart, "Islam and the West; Testing the Clash of Civilizations Thesis", John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, Faculty Research Working Papers Series (RWP02-015), April 2002, p.14 (http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP02-015/$File/rwp02_015_norris_rev1.pdf)
1232. The cloning
Биология

Human cloning creates many denials. First of all, formation of human personality in based not only on biological inheritance, but is also defined by social and cultural environment. The reconstruction of events that influenced on the protoplast is not possible when cloning a man. Therefore, one will never get the same characteristics as his protoplast. Second of all, when cloning, the strict program predestine less variety of cooperation between the developing organism and the changes of the surrounding conditions. Third of all, practically all the religious doctrines stand that the conception and the birth of man have to occur in the course of nature.
1233. The comparative analysis of an education system in Finland and Kazakhstan
Педагогика

After the great success of Finland in PISA this country became world-known. Many delegates visited and still visiting Finland to get the answer about this success, to see a silver bullet. But after observing the schools, talks and discussions with teachers and professors, these delegates go back with the conclusion that Finland is a small country and easily can introduce innovation, but it is almost inapplicable for other countries.education in Finland is really different from many others. In presenting Finnish system of education, many lecturers pay attention to its flexibility and the absence of end lines. This system is not unique for me, because you can see the same in Kazakhstan and Russia, but still in many countries nowadays, such as Iran, Mexico and others this question remains very problematic. And it is really a very stressful and decisive situation and decision for students and their parents, because at certain point they need to decide what they want to do in 10-20 years.national curriculum is also very well planned. For me it was a discovery that the government made even National curriculum on early childhood education and care (2003). What I can see in kindergartens in Kazakhstan is that they are very diverse. Some kindergartens can emphasize on math and calculation, some on languages, some can get support from different entrepreneurs and others just take care of children, but do not offer any special programmes. And still all these kindergartens will have some things in common: children have regime, children will always paint and make some arts and craft, have both outdoor and indoor activities, participate in concerts and discover the world around them through interaction and play. All these aspects come from Vygotskys theory which both countries try to implement. But the problem in Kazakhstan is that kindergartens policy is not very good regulated, there are many blind spots which can be interpreted in different ways.school education is not obligatory in my country and not many children have it. Some kindergartens will include it in their curriculum, but it is not compulsory. It is also possible to have this course at school, so that children will start to get used to a new life, but it will not be free of charge. While the situation in Finland is almost opposite. 99% of children attend pre-school education. And I believe that it is very important to have some basic knowledge through suitable methods and approaches before the school starts, because it will give impulse for childs development and education.if one day I am involved in pre-school or kindergartens environment, I will do my best to awake childrens interest to the surrounding world, make them participate in nowadays life, give them voice, ask their opinion and encourage them to find answers to the questions.education is also different in these two countries. The first difference comes from the amount of years in elementary school: in Kazakhstan it is only 4 years, but in Finland it is six. The idea of primary education is the same: there is one class teacher, who teaches all the subjects, but in my country this teacher is free from music, PE, Kazakh or any foreign language. It is difficult to say for sure which system is better, but in my society the beginning of secondary education, or the 5th grade is described for children as they start a new life, where they will have several subject teachers and as a result more duties and responsibilities to do. And you can really see the difference in childrens behavior in the 4th grade and then in the 5th one. They try to act as adults.secondary education in Kazakhstan and Finland is quite similar. Here children study more subjects with different teachers. A difference can be seen in the school structures. As a rule there will be one school building for all the age groups. In most cases classrooms for primary education will be located on the first floor, and subject teachers classroom will be on the second, third and forth. It is made with the purpose to avoid childrens moving from school to school.high secondary school almost does not differ from the secondary one in Kazakhstan. Those children, who made a choice to continue education at school, will just follow the national curriculum. But the Finnish system here is very different. And this difference goes from the national curriculum (2003). In both countries the curriculums are not detailed, but serve mostly as a guide-book and teachers are free to use different methods and plan their academic year with a goal of students achievements to the curriculum requirements. But in Kazakhstan students do not have an option to study what they want or like, because everybody follows the same programme. While the approach in Finnish society is opposite. Students here will have a personal study plan which they can discuss with teachers and school counselor. The National Core Curriculum for Basic Education (2004) is planned in such a way that students will get basic knowledge of each subject, at least two courses of any subjects are required to be taken. And while having these courses children can make a decision which of them is the most interesting for them and which is not. And then based on this decision students can make a study plan for themselves they would like to follow. And I personally find this way very unusual but interesting. If you compare this situation to Kazakhstan, you will see that very often although students would love to emphasize on specific subjects more, they do not have time and sometimes necessary support from teachers for this. And then after leaving the school many students do not know what they want to study, because they know little about everything. That is why I see Finnish system as more beneficial, where students begin to prepare themselves for their future profession already at school.about system of education and methods of teaching in general, they are very different. Finnish system is more flexible, a student and his needs are in the center if organization, where failure is not the end and teachers must be always ready to change something to achieve better students outcome. But in Kazakhstan school can be described as a framework and if there is a student who does not fit it, it is students fault, not schools. And the main argument for this is that most of the students are doing well and there must never be exceptions.financial capital of school is also different; there is huge gap between these two countries. All Finnish schools can afford free food for home economics classes, good teaching equipment: such as interactive or smart boards, nice furniture and even new buildings. But in Kazakhstan schools experience lack of books in library and other new teaching materials, articles and other stuff; materials for biological, physical and chemical experiences; good computers and other IT stuff. These are differences which can be changed only from the governmental level, but I believe that something can be improved just by teachers.one different factor is free, inclusive and equal education. Good education in Finland is not considered to be a privilege of high class society. Everybody has equal access to it. Education in Finland is mostly public and there is no difference between schools. The schools are free from ranking and do not have policy to advertise themselves as the best ones to have students. There is no competition between schools and even cities. Each school performs on the same level, and that is why many parents trust the school which is close to their house, as there is no need for them to search for a better one. Finnish schools also make the education as inclusive as it is possible. The social policy of the country is to make society united; do not hide people with special needs behind the walls. And that is why Finnish schools have good equipment for handicaps, so that these students attend usual schools and follow the usual curriculum. The gender aspect is not visible on the school level as well. Both, girls and boys have equal access to the education, materials and are free with their wishes and preferences. There is not a single subject organized only for girls or boys, everything is up to them, what is a little bit different from my country. The case of free education is not a surprise for Europe. But almost the absence of private sector is not so common. And this has a great impact on peoples equality; it narrows down the families economic background and people do not try to emphasize it later, after graduation as well. During the difficult XXth century, when Finland experienced several crises, it was a good governmental decision to make people united. The situation in Kazakhstan differs. There is a ranking list of schools and the schools effectiveness will also differ. Some gymnasiums, lycées or private school are considered to be for the best children or not poor families.2003 many educational researches mentioned that some of the key factors for Finland in PISA are good educated parents, and a popular reading habit. The more educated parents the better they understand the necessity of education, and they themselves are good examples for their children. Finnish people and students as well do read a lot. According the PISAs questionnaire more and more students prefer to read online; it can be a newspaper, a magazine, random articles or even forums, but real newspaper reading is still on the first place and while usual books are loosing their popularity. (The Finnish success in PISA - and some reasons behind it, 2007, p 28)school in Finland will have at least one teacher of special education. And each student can attend his classes at least once or twice a week. Special education here does not mean education for the weakest students, who are behind everyone. Any student, even one of the best performing still can attend these classes, and reasons for this may be different. Some students could be ill and did not go to school for several days and now it is difficult for them to understand the topic; some students might be very sensitive and can not work in a noisy atmosphere or maybe some students just can not understand the theory or rule, and they will prefer to see a special teacher. (The Finnish success in PISA - and some reasons behind it, 2007, p 48) I really like the idea of special teacher and school counselor, because they can provide students with all the necessary support and guidance.ability to observe and study education in Finland awoke me to re-thing my vision of teaching. And if one day I am teacher, I will try to make my classes student-oriented, where everybody will be involved. I will make more discussions, give students a voice, let them speak and express their thoughts. I will give them exercises where they will need to make a quick research or work in groups. And I think that in this case I will need to be always ready to answer new question and give students extra support.
1234. The conflicts of the modern world. A competitive society
Разное

The main idea is that the first thousand male human beings were ever gathered together, they belonged to an army, and large-scale slaughter of people happened soon afterwards. Moreover, the first army carried such weapons as spears, knives, axes, perhaps bows and arrows and its strength did not lie in mere members but in discipline and organisation. In addition, drill is what transforms a mob of individual fighters into an army. Therefore, the basic forms of military drill are among the most unchanging elements of human civilisation. Though every man died his own death, what happened was quite impersonal during the battle of well-drilled armies. The result is that thousands of men would die in half an hour, in an area not bigger than a couple of two football fields. Consequently, a question immediately comes to mind: How could men do this? The reason is that a formation of drilled men has a different psychology, which tends to overpower the personal identity and fears of the individuals. In conclusion, people will kill if they find themselves in a situation where their own survival is threatened and due to this anybody can be persuaded and manipulated in this way.
1235. The Consequences of the Soviet-Afghan War
Политология

Another consequence of the Afghan war was drug addiction and excess consumption of alcohol. Because combat in any area wasnt safe, the soldiers had to be always on high alert. In order to relax, many relied on drugs. Afghanistan was the major supplier of poppy to the world during those times. Drugs became part of the Soviet soldier's lives. Many felt that drugs were essential for survival. Drugs helped a soldier to carry 90 pounds of ammunition up and down the mountains. It helped them to overcome the depression resulting from their friends deaths, and to overcome their own fear of death. Drugs and alcohol became the usual procedure of self-medication, because other options were unavailable. One veteran said “There wasnt a single person among us who didnt do drugs in Afghanistan. You needed relaxation, or you went out of your mind.” (Galeotti 51). This created a generation of drug addicts and alcoholics. According to the Soviet Department of Health Services, a 20.4% increase was registered from 1979 to 1985, compared to 1950-1978. (Galeotti 53).
1236. The culture of public speaking
Иностранные языки
1237. The cybernetics movements
Социология
1238. The dark side of the moon
Философия

Господи, да где же слова-то, мысли мои где? Он с размаху ударил себя полураскрытым кулаком по лицу. Ведь за всю жизнь ни одной мысли у меня не было! Подожди, Кирилл ведь что-то говорил такое... Кирилл! Он лихорадочно копался в воспоминаниях, всплывали какие-то слова, знакомые и полузнакомые, но все это было не то, потому что не слова остались от Кирилла, остались какие-то смутные картины, очень добрые, но ведь. Подлость, подлость... И здесь они меня обвели, без языка оставили, гады... Шпана... Как был шпаной, так шпаной и состарился... Вот этого не должно быть! Ты, слышишь? Чтобы на будущее это раз и навсегда было запрещено! Человек рожден, чтобы мыслить (вот он, Кирилл, наконец-то!..). Только ведь я в это не верю. И раньше не верил, и сейчас не верю, и для чего человек рожден - не знаю. Родился, вот и рожден. Кормится кто во что горазд. Пусть мы все будем здоровы, а они пускай все подохнут. Кто это - мы? Кто они? Ничего же не понять. Мне хорошо - Барбриджу плохо, Барбриджу хорошо - Очкарику плохо, Хрипатому хорошо - всем плохо, и самому Хрипатому плохо, только он, дурак, воображает, будто сумеет как-нибудь вовремя извернуться... Господи, это ж каша, каша! Я всю жизнь с капитаном Квотербладом воюю, а он всю жизнь с Хрипатым воевал и от меня, обалдуя, только одного лишь хотел - чтобы я сталкерство бросил. Но как же мне было сталкерство бросить, когда семью кормить надо? Работать идти? А не хочу я на вас работать, тошнит меня от вашей работы, можете вы это понять? Я так полагаю: если среди вас человек работает, он всегда на кого-то из вас работает, раб он и больше ничего, а я всегда хотел сам, сам хотел быть, чтобы на всех поплевывать, на тоску вашу и скуку... Он допил остатки коньяка и изо всех сил ахнул пустую флягу о землю. Фляга подскочила, сверкнув на солнце, и укатилась куда-то, он сразу же забыл о ней. Теперь он сидел, закрыв глаза руками, и пытался уже не понять, не придумать, а хотя бы увидеть что-нибудь, как оно должно быть, но он опять видел только рыла, рыла, рыла... зелененькие... бутылки, кучи тряпья, которые когда-то были людьми, столбики цифр... Он знал, что все это надо уничтожить, и он хотел это уничтожить, но он догадывался, что если все это будет уничтожено, то не останется ничего, только ровная голая земля. От бессилия и отчаяния ему снова захотелось прислониться спиной и откинуть голову, он поднялся, машинально отряхнул штаны от пыли и начал спускаться в карьер.
1239. The diabetic diet
Иностранные языки
1240. The Doctrine of the "Mysterious Female" in Taoism
Разное

For an understanding of the Taoist inner alchemy, two pairs of interrelated concepts are of predominant importance: natural essence (hsing) and vitality (ming); precelestial or prenatal (hsian t'ian) and postcelestial or postnatal (hou t'ian). The Taoist texts explain these concepts thus: The teaching about alchemical melting is the teaching of the method of melting of the natural essence and vitality to make them perfect. The law of the natural essence and vitality has two sides: the natural essence given by Heaven, which must be nurtured, and the natural essence of the pneumatic quality, which must be overcome. The vitality which is confirmed in separation must be pacified; bodily vitality must be fed. These are the principal two sides of the teaching of the Way (Tung Te-ning, a Taoist of the 18th century, commentary on the "Chapters of the Insight into the Truth" of Chang Potuan, 11 A.D.). A famous representative of inner alchemy, Wu Ch'ung-hsti (born in 1574), also tells us that precelestial nature is the pneuma received by the foetus at the time of conception, and the postcelestial one is the pneuma or energy received by a foetus due to the breathing of its mother or (after its birth) through its own inhalations. The first pneuma is concentrated in the navel, the second one in the nostrils. The inner alchemy is directed towards the harmonization of the "natural essence" and "vitality," the elimination of any collision between them. When this purpose is realized, an "elixir of immortality" appears inside the body of an adept which, in turn, changes itself into the so-called "immortal embryo" (hsian t'ai) growing into the state of the new immortal body of the alchemist. Therefore, the body of the Taoist is a female body, maternal body, and the adept himself or herself appears to be his or her own mother, like Lao-tar of the cosmological myth, who also was, as we have seen, the mother of himself/herself. Certainly, "immortal embryo" is a fruit of the conjugality or hierogamy of two principles, yin and yang, like everything in the world, but this sacred marriage has its place in the body of a Taoist who, like all beings, obtains his/her life in the maternal womb of the Mysterious Female, the great Way (Tao) of the universe. The body of the Taoist is a female body, too; in this body the conjunction of the principles takes its place and the fruit of this union is nothing other than the miraculously transfigured Taoist himself/herself. Thus the body of the Taoist is an analogy to the mystical body of Tao which is of paradigmatic value for the Taoist (Schipper, 1978, p.371).

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