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621. Laos
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Now i'd like to tell you about the history of Laos. First Laotian territory was the seat of the Buddhist kingdom of Lan Xang, founded in 1353 by King Fa Ngum. Laos was invided by France in 1893 and by Japanese forces in 1941. During the World War II King Sisavang Vong proclaimed himself king of all Laos.
622. Law Enforcement and the Youthful Offender
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In almost every aspect of their work with juveniles, the police must have contact with at least one other agency in the community. It must be recognized that the police services are only a part of the total community effort to promote the welfare of children and young people. For police services to be made more effective, then, they must be planned in relationship to the overall community program as well as to the services offered by individual agencies. Although police officers, and particularly special juvenile officers, should be familiar with the contribution and operation of all agencies in the community (an up-to-date directory of agencies can be of great value), it is clear that the major part of their work with children will involve contact with only a limited number of agencies. This contact should normally be close and continuous and, therefore, the relationship should be based on a clear understanding and amicable acceptance of the role of each of the participants. But in conclusion I want to say that there is often a lack of communication between the police and other young serving agencies in the community resulting in mutual criticism and feelings of hostility. Police sometimes say such agencies fail to advise them of action taken concerning juveniles brought to their attention. Agency personnel, on the other hand, often attribute the hostility and bad behavior of the juveniles turned over to them by the police to the unsympathetic “treatment” given them by the police. Social agencies personnel, including probation officers and even some judges, see only effective treatment. On the other side, some police see such agency personnel as unrealistically soft and permissive even to the extent of being “played for suckers” by cunning, worldly wise “young punks.” Feelings such as these on both sides are certainly not conducive to effective communication to say nothing of real cooperation.
623. Learning a foreign language
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There are many reasons why we begin the study of a foreign language. One of them is to be able to communicate with other people who use this language. We may be planning to travel in one or two countries where the language is spoken. If we know the language of a foreign country, we can talk to its people and understand what they are saying to us. If we are working in any branch of science, we naturally wish to read scientific books and magazines in other languages. Making business nowadays also means knowing foreign languages because of the growing international business contacts. Knowing foreign languages helps people of different countries to develop mutual friendship and understanding. We can also make our intellectual and cultural horizons wider through contacts with people of another culture. It is also very interesting to read foreign literature in the original. We can also read foreign newspapers and magazines and to understand films in foreign languages without any help.
624. Learning a foreing language
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There are many reasons why we begin to study foreign language. One of them is to be able to communicate with other people who use this language. We may be planning to travel in one or two countries where the language is spoken. If we know the language of a foreign country, we can talk to its people and understand what they are saying to us. If we are working in any branch of science, we naturally wish to read scientific books and magazines in other languages. Making business nowadays also means knowing foreign languages because of the growing international business contacts. Knowing foreign languages helps people of different countries to develop mutual friendship and understanding. We can also make our intellectual and cultural horizons wider through contacts with people of another culture. It is also very interesting to read foreign literature in the original. We can also read foreign newspapers and magazines and to understand films in foreign languages without any help.
625. Learning foreign language
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English is one of the world languages. It is the language of progressive science and technology, trade and cultural relations, commerce and business. It is the universal language of international aviation, shipping and sports. It is also the major language of diplomacy. Hundreds and hundreds of books, magazines and newspapers are printed in English, most of the worlds mail and telephone calls are in English. Half of the worlds scientific literature is written in English. English is spoken by more than 350 million people. Geographically, it is the most widespread language on earth, second after Chinese. It is the official language of the UK, the USA , of Australia and New Zealand, it is used as one of the official languages in Canada, the South Africa. Millions of people study and use English as a foreign language. In our country English is very popular. It is studied at schools, colleges and universities.
626. Learning Foreign Languages
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Is it necessary to learn foreign languages nowadays? You can just go to the shop and buy an electronic translator. But is it capable of giving you really required information? More and more people come to a thought that electronic machine never will be able to replace human's brain. All over the world people are learning foreign languages. Everybody knows his own language, but another one is very useful. It is important to know it when we travel to other countries or when we must read foreign literature in the original. It is necessary in the 21st century when international cooperation is sat its highest level.
627. Learning languages
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The problem of learning languages is very important today. Foreign languages are socially demanded especially at the present time when the progress in science and technology has led to an explosion of knowledge and has contributed to an overflow of information. The total knowledge of mankind is known to double every seven years. Foreign languages are needed as the main and most efficient means of information exchange of the people of our planet.Today English is the language of the world. Over 350 million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada, the South African Republic. As a second language it is used in the former British and US colonies.It is the major international language for communication in such areas as science, technology, business and mass entertainment. English is one of the official languages of the United Nations Organization and other political organization. It is the language of the literature, education, modern music, international tourism.
628. Legros, Alphonse
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After a penurious youth, when he studied under Lecoq de Boisbaudran, he had some considerable success at the Salon, and several of his works were bought by the state. In 1863, however, he participated in the Salon des Refusйs, partly under the influence of his friend Whistler. He came to London in the same year and taught first at the South Kensington School of Fine Art and then at the Slade, where he exerted a great influence on those artists who were to become the nucleus of the New English Art Club. Although he could in no way be thought of as an Impressionist, on the invitation of Degas he participated in the second Impressionist exhibition and was an invaluable contact between Paris and London in the dissemination of Impressionist ideas. Pissarro was very dubious about his teaching methods, especially when Lucien, his son, was working under him. Legros' own paintings were rather sentimental genre scenes (The Angelus, 1859; Musйe d'Orsay).
629. Leipzig als eine Messestadt
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Seit der Grndung ist Leipzig wegen seiner gnstigen Lage ein Handelsplatz zwischen Ost und West. Jetzt hat Leipzig schon die Bedeutung einer der grten Messestdte verloren, aber frher war es wirklich eine bedeutende Messestadt. Zweimal im Jahr, im Frhling und im Herbst, kamen Kaufleute in dieser Handelsmetropole der Welt zusammen, um zu kaufen oder verkaufen und das Neueste aus allen Wirtschaftszweigen zu erfahren. Bereits im 12.Jahrhundert wurden in Leipzig Messen durchgefhrt, aber damals hieen sie noch Jahrmrkte. In dieser Stadt wird noch eine Urkunde sorgfltig aufbewahrt. In ihr heit es, da Leipzig das Stadtrecht erhlt, weil dort Mrkte durchgefhrt wurden.
630. Leisure
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When we have time for leisure, we usually need something that can amuse and interest us. There are several ways to do this. People use radio or television. They switch on the radio set or TV set and choose the programme they like best. Some people like music. They listen to various concerts of modern and old music, new and old songs, and see dances. Those who are fond of sports listen to or watch football and hockey matches. These are the most popular kinds of sports. There are a lot of fans among people. They can also see championships in athletics and other kinds of sports. Radio and television extend our knowledge about the world. Television helps us to “visit” different lands, see new plants, animals, unusual birds, fish and insects, mountains and valleys, lakes, rivers and seas. We are shown different countries, cities and towns and people who live there. This is what we can do at home.
631. Leisure and Activities
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Many youths are involved in community service organizations. Some are active in church and religious-group activities. Others belong to youth groups such as Girl Scouts or Boy Scouts. About three million girls aged six to 17 years old belong to Girl Scouts, for example. They learn about citizenship, crafts, arts, camping and other outdoor activities.
632. Leisure time
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The Scouts and Pioneers were the first, but not the only organisations of the young people. For example today the volunteer movement is extremely popular among the teenagers. It dates back to the year 1921, when a French soldier decided to restore a German house after World War I free of charge. The movement flourished only in the late 1990s when young people of Europe and the United States went to different parts of the world helping local communities to solve their problems. Today volunteerism is very popular in American community and political life. Volunteerism implies assisting people through privately initiated agencies. Volunteers do not receive any salary for what they are doing, but at the same time their work is highly motivated. They react very quickly, immediately coming to help to whoever may need it. There are several types of volunteer work: workcamps, mid-term and long-term volunteering projects. Any young man from any continent can come to workcamps. These camps attain certain objectives in social, ecological, archaeological fields. Usually all works are done under the supervision of professionals. The mid-and long-term projects usually concern the social sphere. They include assistance to children, old people, crippled or immigrants. Volunteer fund-raising groups unite to help the needy in all spheres. They can do almost any work that is necessary. Volunteers can be found in any part of the globe. In the United States six out of ten pupils are members of some volunteer organisations.
633. Leisure time of British teenagers
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The majority of teenagers in Great Britain spend their free time as everywhere in the world. The average young person spends about 19 hours in front of the television. According to the government report nearly three-quarter of young people have TV sets in their rooms. Besides watching TV, other activities like cinema going and sport remain popular. In Wales, the report says that some 50 percent of boys play football throughout the winter while a great number of girls also play football, although they are in general prefer swimming and tennis.
634. l'enseignement en France
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Les universites accueillent tous les candidats ayant le bac sans fair de selection. Plus de la moitie des bacheliers y entrent, mais 40% environ abandonnent au cours de la premier annee. On entre a luniversite pour des etudes de lettres, de sciences economiques, de medicine, de pharmacie, de droit, etc. Ces etudes reparties sur trois cycles et sur plusieurs annees detudes, permettent dobtenir des diplomes et de se preparer a certains concours:
1. le premier cycle prepare en deux ans au diplome detudes universitaires generales (DEUG);
2. le second cycle dure deux ans: une annee apres le DEUG prepare a la licence, et une annee apres le licence prepare a la maitrise;
3. le troisieme cycle ou il y a deux filieres: 1) le DESS diplome detudes superieures spicialisees cest un diplome professionnel; 2) le DEA - diplome detudes approfondies qui prepare a la recherche.
635. Leonardo da Vinci
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There has never been an artist who was more fittingly, and without qualification, described as a genius. Like Shakespeare, Leonardo came from an insignificant background and rose to universal acclaim. Leonardo was the illegitimate son of a local lawyer in the small town of Vinci in the Tuscan region. His father acknowledged him and paid for his training, but we may wonder whether the strangely self-sufficient tone of Leonardo's mind was not perhaps affected by his early ambiguity of status. The definitive polymath, he had almost too many gifts, including superlative male beauty, a splendid singing voice, magnificent physique, mathematical excellence, scientific daring... the list is endless. This overabundance of talents caused him to treat his artistry lightly, seldom finishing a picture, and sometimes making rash technical experiments. The Last Supper, in the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, for example, has almost vanished, so inadequate were his innovations in fresco preparation.
636. Les droits des femmes d'hier et d'aujourd'hui
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Les femmes modernes ont un droit légal de faire à peu prêt tout ce qu'un homme fait; cependant, elles vivent encore l'opposition et le mépris quand elles occupent des rôles traditionnellement réservés aux hommes. Bien que ce ne soit pas une loi, on s'attend à ce que la femme soit la dispensatrice des soins, quoique les hommes s'engagent beaucoup plus dans les affaires ménagères. Les femmes ont beaucoup plus d'influence en politique, encore que les politiciens au parlement soient majoritairement des hommes. Ici, on doit attirer l'attention sur les responsabilités professionnelles et domestiques. Les femmes doivent maintenant conjuguer leurs rôles d'épouse, de mère et d'employé. Il n'y a aucune limite technique ou légale quant à l'éducation ou au choix de carrière. Les femmes ont fréquemment un diplôme universitaire. Les seules limites sont le " deux poids deux mesures ", les iniquités salariales par rapport aux hommes, le " plafonnement voilé " à l'avancement professionnel et la pénible réalité de conjuguer les obligations professionnelles et familiales. Maintenant on peut dire: Salaire égal à travail égal, - cest la fin de la pauvreté des femmes et la fin de la violence faite aux femmes. Les étudiants doivent puiser dans leurs connaissances de l'actualité, cependant, les méthodes demeurent essentiellement les mêmes (ex. , pétitions, tribunaux, rassemblements et débats publics) en plus des campagnes d'information publique, des entrevues télévisées, des groupes de pression, etc. Cet aspect nécessite que les étudiants soient sensibilisés et aient une opinion sur l'actualité. De nos jours, il y a des efforts spécifiques pour assurer que les droits des femmes sont respectés et appliqués et que la violation de ces droits soit dénoncée et rectifiée. La réaction de la société est généralement positive. Il peut y avoir de l'opposition à l'égalité de la femme, mais il s'agit généralement de réactions individuelles plutôt que sociétales.
637. Les energies renouvelables
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638. Les fetes en France
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Etant consacrée à la Vierge, la fête de la Chandeleur est censée etre propice à lamour: elle favorise les opérations destinées à rêver de son futur époux. En Franche-Comté par exemple, les jeunes gens faisaient une neuvaine à la chapelle deMarie: tous les jours jusquà la veille du 2 février, ils assistaient à la première messe et à la prière du soir, puis, dans leurs chambres, dressaient une table avec deux couverts, sans couteaux toutefois, avec le linge le plus blanc, le plus fin et la plus belle vaisselle. Deux morceaux de pain bénit étaient placés près de chaque assiette, un peu de vin versé dans chaque verre, et deux brins dun arbuste au feuillage vert et deux branches de buis bénit disposés en croix ornaient le milieu de la table. Alors on ouvrait la porte au large pour le convive attendu, puis on sasseyait à table en adressant une prière à la Sainte-Vierge. Après avoir mangé un morceau du pain bénit et bu le vin versé. On se couchait. La jeune fille devait rêver de celui qui lui était destiné et le jeune homme de sa future compagne. Celles qui voyaient des processions de nonnes entraient au couvent; celles qui devaient mourir jeunes assistaient à leur propre enterrement.
639. Les freres Montgolfier
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5 juin 1783. Les habitants sont venues en foule sur la place dAnnonay. A laide de cordes, quelques hommes maintiennent le ballon au-dessus dun rechaud rempli de paille. On allume la paille, lair chaud gonfle le ballon. Les hommes lachent les cordes, et lappareil gigantesque la montgolfiere, comme on va lappeler seleve au-dessus des spectateurs qui applaudissent.
640. Lexicology
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Transformational analysis in lexicological investigations may be defined as repatterning ( representing , reorganization ) of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns . As distributional patterns are in a number of cases polysemantic transformational procedures are of help not only in the analysis of semantic sameness / difference of the lexical units but also in the analysis of the factors that account for their polysemy . Word-groups of identical distributional structure when repatterned show that the semantic relations between words & consequently the meaning may be different .e. g. A pattern “possessive pronoun ”+”noun”(his car , his failure , his arrest, his kindness ). According to transformational analysis the meaning of each word-group may be represented as : he has a car , he failed , he was arrested , he is kind. In each of the cases different meaning is revealed : possession , action , passive action , quality .The rules of transformation are rather strict & shouldnt be identified with paraphrasing in the usual sense of the term .There are many restrictions both on syntactic & lexical levels . These are :
1. Permutation the repatterning on condition that the basic subordinative relationships between words & word-stems of the lexical units are not changed .e. g. “His work is excellent “ may be transformed into “ his excellent work , the excellence of his work , he works excellently “.In the example given the relationships between lexical units & the stems of the notional words are essentially the same .
2. Replacement the substitution of a component of the distributional structure by a member of a certain strictly defined set of lexical units .e. g. Replacement of a notional verb by an auxiliary or link verb (he will make a bad mistake & he will make a good teacher ). The sentences have identical distributional structure but only in the second one the verb “to make “ can be substituted by “ become “ or “ be “ . The fact of impossibility of identical transformations of distributionally identical structures is a formal proof of the difference in their meaning .

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