Статья

• 641. Lexicology of the English Language
  Разное

  The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes as the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French. Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed were substituted by Latin letters and combinations of letters, e.g. «v» was introduced for the voiced consonant /v/ instead of «f» in the intervocal position /lufian - love/, the digraph «ch» was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of the letter «c» / chest/ before front vowels where it had been palatalized, the digraph «sh» was introduced instead of the combination «sc» to denote the sound /sh/ /ship/, the digraph «th» was introduced instead of the Runic letters «0» and « » /this, thing/, the letter «y» was introduced instead of the Runic letter «3» to denote the sound /j/ /yet/, the digraph «qu» substituted the combination «cw» to denote the combination of sounds /kw/ /queen/, the digraph «ou» was introduced to denote the sound /u:/ /house/ (The sound /u:/ was later on diphthongized and is pronounced /au/ in native words and fully assimilated borrowings). As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines /«sunu» - «son», luvu» - «love»/.

• 642. Lexicology. Word structure in Modern English
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  However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [r?-], [d?-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [r?-] or [d?-], nor the [-te?n] or [-s?:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [r?-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-te?n] distinguishes retain from receive.

• 643. Liabilities for transactions before incorporation
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  2)It doesn't matter to whom the affirmance is made. It could be to the agent, to the third party, or anyone else or nobody at all. Why? Because what was lacking in the original contract was merely his expression of assent to the relationship of agency. The terms are fixed, the third party believes he has an agreement, all that's missing is the opposite party. So the President of the firm's note to himself that the affirms may be sufficient. If there are some formalities required to authorize an act e.g., sealed instruments, deeds then there might be additional formality required for affirmance.

• 644. Linguistic Pecularities Of Contracts in English
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  3. Арнольд И.В. Основы лингвистических исследований: Учеб. пособие. М.: Высш. шк., 1991. 140 с.
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  5. Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка. М., 1981. 336 с.
  6. Голденков М. Азы английского сленга и деловой переписки. Мн.: издательский дом, 1994. 128 с.
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  9. Израилевич Е.Е. Учебник коммерческой корреспонденции и документации на английском языке. М.: Внешторгиздат, 1964. 447 с.
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• 645. Literature
  Разное

  The word "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and sculptures to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language (Egyptian hieroglyphs, for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital media. The Muslim scholar and philosopher Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq (702-765 AD) defined Literature as follows: "Literature is the garment which one puts on what he says or writes so that it may appear more attractive."[1] added that literature is a slice of life that has been given direction and meaning, an artistic interpretation of the world according to the percipient's point of works. Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. Russian Formalist Roman Jakobson defines literature as "organized violence committed on ordinary speech", highlighting literature's deviation from the day-to-day and conversational structure of words. Illustrated stories, hypertexts, cave paintings and inscribed monuments have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature."

• 646. Lomonosov
  Разное

  M.L. was born in 1711 in Arhangelsk province. He liked to spend his time fishing with his father. He began to read him self then he was a little boy. He wanted to study and then he was 19 he went on foot to Moscow.

• 647. London
  Разное

  If the City is the business part of London, Westminster is the centre of administration. We can see the Houses of Parliament there. It is a beautiful building with two towers and a very big clock called Big Ben. The Houses of Parliament stand in Parliament Square. Westminster Abbey is opposite the Houses of Parliament. Many great Englishmen were buried in Westminster Abbey. To the west of Westminster Abbey you can see Buckingham Pa-lace. It is a royal residence. The ceremony of the chan-ging of the guards which takes place in front of Bucking-ham Palace is of great interest to the tourists.

• 648. London - the capital of Great Britain
  Разное

  When we think of Paris, Rome. Madrid, Lisbon and other European capitals, we think of them as "cities'. When we think of the whole of modern London, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, that great area covering several hundred square kilometres, we do not think of it as 'a city. not even as a city and its suburbs. Modem London is not one city that has steadily become larger through the centuries; it is a number of cities. towns, and villages that have, during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urban area.

• 649. London city - Capital of the United Kingdom
  Разное

  The City of London, about 1 square mile (2.7 square km) in area, is the core of an area called Inner, or Central, London, which contains the City of London and 13 of the 33 boroughs of Greater London. The central point in the City of London is an open space from which eight streets radiate. On the southern side is Mansion House, residence of the lord mayor of London. Lombard Street, the traditional banking street, is nearby, as are the Bank of England headquarters, the Royal Exchange, and the Stock Exchange. To the east is the fortress-castle known as the Tower of London, whose core dates from the late 11th century and is surrounded by constructions from many periods of English architecture. To the west lie the Inns of Court, longtime chambers and offices of barristers and lawyers-in-training, and the Royal Courts of Justice, or Law Courts. The City of London and the City of Westminster are linked by the Strand, an avenue upon which are located two of London's oldest churches, St. Clement Dane's and St. Mary-le-Strand.

• 650. London's Villages
  Разное

  London is richly endowed with neighborhoods which, despite their absorption into the growing metropolis, have still retained their village character. The history of these villages varies greatly. Some, such as Shoreditch and Stepney, originated as agricultural settlements very close to the edge of the City, and soon became incorporated into the urban fabric. Others were at a greater distance from the City and remained free-standing settlements amidst the fields of Middlesex, Surrey, Kent or Essex until well into the 18th century and beyond. They were ultimately converted into suburbs by a number of factors: turnpike roads brought Hampstead and Highgate into the parameters of 18th-century London, while 19th-century railway developments accounted for the absorption of Balham and Enfield. In the 20th century, Underground lines meant that even far-flung centres such as Edgware and Morden became part of Greater London. In addition, London has its share of planned "villages" such as Hampstead Garden Suburb, which followed the opening of the Golders Green Underground station in 1907, and Bedford Park, which was described by John Betjeman as "the most significant suburb built in the last century, probably in the western world".

• 651. Look Back at Youths in America
  Разное

  At the beginning of the 1900s, new factories had been built, the western frontier was being conquered and the economy was growing rapidly. Though society still fell short of their ideals, youthsand their elders believed that improvement and progress toward a better world was inevitable and unstoppable. The staggering shock and losses brought by World War I (1914-1918), however, caused disillusion. During the 1920s, youths in America determined to live life to its fullest in anticipation of an uncertain future, went "on the greatest, gaudiest spree in history" wrote novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald. Some young people tended to reject their parents' values and turned to the new jazz music, to dancing and to having a good time.

• 652. Love Indestructible
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  Earthly - земной (почти всегда подразумевается противопоставление небесному, неземному); мирской, суетный; земной, приземленный, материальный

• 653. Love means different things to different people
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  The subject of love is one that has inspired poets, writers, those lucky in love and those who have been passed over by Cupid…Love has been defined as wise, silly, profound, bitter, funny…It seems as if each and one of us has a different understanding of love, or at least the attitude to love varies greatly from person to person.. It may be a surprising revelation to some of us, because love has traditionally been considered to be something that unites people( at least thats what Ive been taught).And yet, theres no use denying the fact that love has as many definitions as there are human beings on this planet. And it doesnt necessarily mean that love no longer unites people. It just means that love has different dimensions, different sides that reflect our understanding of life.

• 654. Ludwig Van Beethoven
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  Beethoven passed a terrible crisis, his deafness was more and more significant and the last hopes of recovering his health disappeared. At that time he wrote a letter for his brothers, Carl and Johann, known as "Heiligenstadt Testement", with the following direction: "To be read and carried out after my death". He was on the verge of suicide. "How humiliated I have felt if somebody standing beside me heard the sound of a flute in the distance and I heard nothing... If not for my music, little more of this and I would have ended my life... I have been stranger to the trill of joy for so long. When, O God, when shall I feel joy once more?" But his powerful nature could not give up under the weight of his suffering: "My physical beneath improves always with the growth of my intellectual force? Yes, I can fell that my youth is only just beginning... O, if I were only free from my deafness I would embrace the world!? No rest! At least, none that I know of except sleep;? I will wage war against destiny."

• 655. Madagascar
  Разное

  The history of Madagascar, first European to sight the island was Diogo Dias. Dias was from Portugal. He found the island some time in the 1500s. During the 17th century, the Portuguese, the English, and the French successively and unsuccessfully tried to colonize Madagascar. The French got a temporary hold on the island in 1642. They were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired trading places along the east coast in the following century. From 1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king, Radama I, who didnt like the French, allowed the English to come and live there. British officers trained Merina troops, and British missionaries introduced Christianity. After the death of Radama I, a strong reaction towards European culture developed. Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations with Great Britain were severed. Radama II reigned from 1861 to 1863. He was a generally a progressive ruler. He got along with the French. Radama II was killed because of this fact. There was a period of time when theyre arguing with the French. After that period of time, Queen Ranavalona III took over ruling Madagascar, in 1895. In 1896, because of popular uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France. Then military rule was instituted, and the queen was sent out of the country and was not allowed to return. Now Madagascar has its own government, and is progressing well. They have a system similar to the United States. They have a congress, a constitution, and a president. Their president is elected for a seven year term. Unlike our presidents term that is only for four years. The official name for Madagascar is Democratic Republic of Madagascar.

• 656. Mademoiselle Chanel
  Разное

  Pendant pres dun demi-siecle, Coco donne a la femme un vetement qui, selon son expression, “lui va comme une seconde peau”. Elle invente la petite robe en crepe noir, cree les perles fausses, les bijoux de fantaisie. Elle lance le jersey qui se porte du matin au soir. Cen est fini de changer de tenue a toute heure da la journee! Selon Mademoiselle Chanel, la mission de la mode est de descendre dans la rue. Ses ateliers executent ses creations par dizaines de milliers.

• 657. Malevich, Kasimir
  Разное

  Malevich moved away from absolute austerity, tilting rectangles from the vertical, adding more colors and introducing a suggestion of the third dimension and even a degree of painterly handling, but around 1918 he returned to his purest ideals with a series of White on White paintings. After this he seems to have realized he could go no further along this road and virtually gave up abstract painting, turning more to teaching, writing, and making three-dimensional models that were important in the growth of Constructivism. In 1919 he started teaching at the art school at Vitebsk, where he exerted a profound influence on Lissitzky, and in 1922 he moved to Leningrad, where he lived for the rest of his life. He visited Warsaw and Berlin in 1927, accompanying an exhibition of his works and visited the Bauhaus. In the late 1920s he returned to figurative painting, but was out of favor with a political system that now demanded Socialist Realism from its artists and he died in neglect. However, his influence on abstract art, in the west as well as Russia, was enormous. The best collection of his work is in the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam.

• 658. Malevich, Kasimir: Suprematist Compositions
  Разное

  Malevich had initially been influenced by Cubism and primitive art, which were both based on nature, but his own movement of Suprematism enabled him to construct images that had no reference at all to reality. Great solid diagonals of color in Dynamic Suprematism are floating free, their severe sides denying them any connection with the real world, where there are no straight lines. This is a pure abstract painting, the artist's main theme being the internal movements of the personality. The theme has no precise form, and Malevich had to search it out from within the visible expression of what he felt. They are wonderful works, and in their wake came other powerful Suprematist painters such as Natalia Goncharova and Liubov Popova.

• 659. Manet Edouard's Flautist
  Разное

  The most significant work of 1866 is "Flautist". The picture speaks about surprising successes of the artist. It is written in three layers, with such reliance and skill, that never and nobody could them surpass. Manet has acquired in workshop of Cutur all colors, and he used brown tone, so-called "juice". He wrote at once on a thin one-ton ground. Modeling of light and shadow were avaricious, the transition from the covered places to shadows is very realistic. Face and naked parts of a body are given in unusual vitality, which originally was written by soft equal tone, then he planned shadows and only then, at the third stage, he imposed patches of light. He did not aspire to hide the amendments and changes, he simply wrote down by wide stroke of paint, there is a bottom layer of painting is transparent through it, and it creates surprising effects. Manet seldom has mixed paints. The trousers of a flautist are of moraine color (green-dark blue) and they will seem as a Chinese varnish. But some shadows, hardly distinctive from close distance. From far distance the picture is more understandable. This picture is situated in Luxembourg museum.

• 660. Manetho
  Разное

  Eusebius, for instance, counted only 3 kings in the 22nd Dynasty, whereas Africanus lists 9. The 23rd Dynasty is treated differently by the two classical authors as well: Eusebius listed 3 kings and gave the Dynasty a total length of 44 years, whereas Africanus counted 4 kings and assigned it only 31 years.The 26th Dynasty counted 9 kings with both Eusebius and Africanus, but with Eusebius it starts with a king named Ammeris and ended with Amosis, whereas Africanus names a Stephinates as the first and a Psammetikherites as the last king of that same Dynasty. Psamtek I of the 26th Dynasty is assigned a rule of 54 years by Africanus and 45 by Eusebius...

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