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Курсовой проект

  • 141. Dнешнеторговая политика России
    Экономика

    Основная причина превосходства развитых иностранных компаний - использование современных производственных и управленческих технологий. Поэтому необходимо рассмотреть возможность ликвидации отставания отечественных предприятий в данной сфере. Внедрение современных производственных технологий требует больших финансовых вложений и дополнительных инвестиций. Но в большинстве своем российские предприятия непрозрачны и малоэффективны, поэтому имеют небольшие шансы на получение инвестиционных ресурсов, поскольку не гарантирована их возвратность. Поэтому для получения инвестиций на модернизацию производства необходимо сделать бизнес предприятий прозрачным и более эффективным. Достичь этого можно с помощью внедрения в них современных управленческих технологий, которые не столь затратные и могут дать не меньший экономический эффект, чем производственные технологии, потому что обеспечивают более рациональное использование финансовых и человеческих ресурсов. Поэтому, применив их в своей практике, российские предприятия смогут значительно приблизиться к эффективности западных компаний и повысить свои шансы на успех после прихода на наш рынок предприятий-ветеранов, которые десятки и сотни лет выживают в жестокой борьбе на суровом капиталистическом рынке, и будут конкурировать прежде всего друг с другом за наш рынок сбыта. После вступления России в ВТО административный ресурс будет обесцениваться, поскольку международные инвесторы окажут давление на президента России и заставят его обеспечить их безопасность, потому что сегодня государственные органы, мягко говоря, неэффективно защищают интересы инвесторов. Когда глава государства захочет привлечь инвестиции, он вынужден будет начать борьбу с коррупцией. А это повлечет за собой обесценивание административного ресурса, и бизнесы, основанные на административном ресурсе, станут слабеть. Поэтому придется учиться работать с "парадного крыльца" - на равных конкурировать на рынке. Рабочая сила подорожает, потому что нерезиденты предложат высокие зарплаты и лучшие специалисты перейдут к ним. А мы будем вынуждены платить больше оставшимся менее грамотным специалистам. Кроме того, грядет подорожание энергетических ресурсов. Это и условие вступления в ВТО, и логика развития рыночной экономики. Лучшие научные умы тоже потянутся к нерезидентам - и не за зарплатой, она их мало интересует, они соблазнятся инвестициями в научные разработки, потому что главное для них - не личное благополучие, а реализация своих идей. В России денег на науку нет, потому что мы не научились на ней зарабатывать. А вот на Западе ситуация противоположная. Нерезиденты предложат финансирование нашей науки, предварительно купив ее. Экологические требования усугубятся, потому что законодательство РФ будет постепенно приводиться в соответствие с международными нормами. Иными словами, наши сильные стороны будут нивелироваться, а преимущества нерезидентов начнут выходить на первый план и станут решающим фактором успеха на новом международном российском рынке. Иностранные компании переместят производство в Россию, принесут самые современные технологии и будут пользоваться нашими дешевыми рабочей силой и энергетическими ресурсами. Это даст им возможность получить огромное конкурентное превосходство. А наличие более длинных и дешевых финансовых ресурсов позволит им быстро развернуть свои бизнесы. Одно крупное российское предприятие, производящее осветительные приборы (не будем приводить его название), несколько лет назад провело исследование и сравнило свою производительность труда с аналогичным предприятием концерна Philips. Результаты ошеломляющие - производительность труда оказалась ниже в 17 раз! Осталось только представить, как после вхождения России в ВТО концерн Philips строит рядом с этим предприятием свой завод и получает доступ к тем же дешевым ресурсам... "Если это произойдет, нам можно расходиться по домам", - констатировали специалисты отечественного предприятия.

  • 142. Ecological problems. Environmental protection
    Экология

    The molecules/atoms that constitute the bulk of the atmosphere: oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2) and argon; do not interact with infrared radiation significantly. While the oxygen and nitrogen molecules can vibrate, because of their symmetry these vibrations do not create any transient charge separation. Without such a transient dipole moment, they can neither absorb nor emit infrared radiation. In the Earths atmosphere, the dominant infrared absorbing gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone (O3). The same molecules are also the dominant infrared emitting molecules. CO2 and O3 have "floppy" vibration motions whose quantum states can be excited by collisions at energies encountered in the atmosphere. For example, carbon dioxide is a linear molecule, but it has an important vibrational mode in which the molecule bends with the carbon in the middle moving one way and the oxygens on the ends moving the other way, creating some charge separation, a dipole moment, thus carbon dioxide molecules can absorb IR radiation. Collisions will immediately transfer this energy to heating the surrounding gas. On the other hand, other CO2 molecules will be vibrationally excited by collisions. Roughly 5% of CO2 molecules are vibrationally excited at room temperature and it is this 5% that radiates. A substantial part of the greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide exists because this vibration is easily excited by infrared radiation. CO2 has two other vibrational modes. The symmetric stretch does not radiate, and the asymmetric stretch is at too high a frequency to be effectively excited by atmospheric temperature collisions, although it does contribute to absorption of IR radiation. The vibrational modes of water are at too high energies to effectively radiate, but do absorb higher frequency IR radiation. Water vapor has a bent shape. It has a permanent dipole moment (the O atom end is electron rich, and the H atoms electron poor) which means that IR light can be emitted and absorbed during rotational transitions, and these transitions can also be produced by collisional energy transfer. Clouds are also very important infrared absorbers. Therefore, water has multiple effects on infrared radiation, through its vapor phase and through its condensed phases. Other absorbers of significance include methane, nitrous oxide and the chlorofluorocarbons.

  • 143. English writer Jane Austen
    Иностранные языки

    ``The progress of the friendship between Catherine [Morland] and Isabella was quick as its beginning had been warm... and if a rainy morning deprived them of other enjoyments, they were still resolute in meeting in defiance of wet and dirt, and shut themselves up, to read novels together. Yes, novels; - for I will not adopt that ungenerous and impolitic custom so common with novel-writers, of degrading by their contemptuous censure the very performances, to the number of which they are themselves adding - joining with their greatest enemies in bestowing the harshest epithets on such works, and scarcely ever permitting them to be read by their own heroine, who, if she accidentally take up a novel, is sure to turn over its insipid pages with disgust. Alas! If the heroine of one novel be not patronized by the heroine of another, from whom can she expect protection and regard? I cannot approve of it. Let us leave it to the Reworkers to abuse such effusions of fancy at their leisure, and over every new novel to talk in threadbare strains of the trash with which the press now groans. Let us not desert one another; we are an injured body. Although our productions have afforded more extensive and unaffected pleasure than those of any other literary corporation in the world, no species of composition has been so much decried. From pride, ignorance, or fashion, our foes are almost as many as our readers. And while the abilities of the nine-hundredth abridger of the History of England, or of the man who collects and publishes in a volume some dozen lines of Milton, , and , with a paper from the Spectator, and a chapter from , are eulogized by a thousand pens, - there seems almost a general wish of decrying the capacity and undervaluing the labour of the novelist, and of slighting the performances which have only genius, wit, and taste to recommend them. "I am no novel-reader - I seldom look into novels - Do not imagine that I often read novels - It is really very well for a novel." - Such is the common cant. - "And what are you reading, Miss - -?" "Oh! it is only a novel!" replies the young lady, while she lays down her book with affected indifference, or momentary shame. "It is only CeciliaCamillaBelinda"; or, in short, only some work in which the greatest powers of the mind are displayed, in which the most thorough knowledge of human nature, the happiest delineation of its varieties, the liveliest effusions of wit and humour, are conveyed to the world in the best-chosen language. Now, had the same young lady been engaged with a volume of the Spectator, instead of such a work, how proudly would she have produced the book, and told its name; though the chances must be against her being occupied by any part of that voluminous publication, of which either the matter or manner would not disgust a young person of taste: the substance of its papers so often consisting in the statement of improbable circumstances, unnatural characters, and topics of conversation which no longer concern anyone living; and their language, too, frequently so coarse as to give no very favourable idea of the age that could endure it.

  • 144. Enrico Fermi and his discovery
    Литература

    После войны, Ферми служил в течение короткого времени на общем Совещательном комитете Комиссии по ядерной энергии, в научном комитете под председательством Роберта Оппенхеимера. После взрыва первой советской атомной бомбы в августе 1949, он, наряду с Изидор Раби, написал решительно сформулированное сообщение для комитета, который выступал против развития водородной бомбы на моральных и технических основаниях. Но Ферми также участвовал в предварительной работе над водородной бомбой в Лос-Аламосе, как консультант, и наряду с Станиславом Уланом, вычислил, что количество трития, необходимого для модели термоядерного оружия Эдварда Теллера будет препятствующим. В своих более поздних годах, Ферми делал важную работу по физике элементарных частиц, особенно связанной с пионами и мюонами. Он, как также известно, был вдохновляющим преподавателем в Университете Чикаго, и как известно, концентрировал свое внимание, на простотой, и осторожной подготовкой к лекции. 28 ноября 1954, Ферми умер в возрасте 53 лет от рака желудка в Чикаго, Иллинойсе и был предан земле там на кладбище. Так Юджин Вигнер написал: " За десять дней до того, как Ферми умер, он сказал мне, я надеюсь, что это не займет много времени". Недавний опрос Time представил Ферми одним из лучших среди двадцати ученых столетия. Лаборатория ускорителя частиц и физики в Батавии, Иллинойсе, названа в честь его сообществом физики. Ферми 1 ферми 2 атомных электростанции в Ньюпорте, Мичиган также назван в честь его. В 1952, элемент 100 на периодической таблице элементов был изолирован из развалин ядерного испытания. В честь вкладов Ферми в научное сообщество, он было, назвал в честь его фермием.

  • 145. Environmental protection
    Безопасность жизнедеятельности

    More than 14 million Americans drink water contaminated by pesticides, and the EPA estimates that ten percent of wells contain pesticides. Nitrates can cause a lethal form of anemia called blue baby syndrome in infants.

    1. Heavy Metals - heavy metals, such as copper, lead, mercury, and selenium, get into the water from industries, automovile exhaust, mines, and natural soil. Heavy metals also become more harmful as they follow the food chain. When they reach high levels in the body, they can be immediately poisonous, or can result in long-term health problems. They can sometimes cause diarrhea and, over time, liver and kidney damage. Children exposed to lead in water can suffer mental retardation.
    2. Hazardous Wastes - chemical wastes that are either toxic, reactive, corrosive, or ignitable. If not treated or stored properly, they can pollute water supplies. They can reach toxic levels when animals eat one another.
    3. Excess Organic Matter - fertilizers and other nutrients used to promote plant growth on farms and in gardens may fine their way into water. At first the nutrients will help the plants and algae in the water grow, but when they die and settle underwater, microorganisms decompose them, while decomposing them the microorganisms take in oxygen that is dissolved in the water. The oxygen levels in the water may drop so low that fish and other oxygen-dependent animals in the water suffocate, and die.
    4. Sediment - soil particles carried to a stream bed, lake, or ocean, if in large amounts, can also be a pollutant. Soil erosion can damage a stream or lake by adding too much nutrient matter. Sedimentation can also cover stream bed gravel where many fish lay their eggs.
    5. Infectious Organisms - many disease causing organisms that are present in small numbers in most natural waters are considered pollutants when found in drinking water. These parasites can cause illness, especially in people who are very young or very old, and in people who are already suffering from other diseases.
    6. Thermal Pollution - water is often taken from rivers, lakes, or the ocean to be used in factories and power plants. The water is usually returned to the source warmer than when it was taken. Even a small temperature change in a body of water can drive away the fish and other species that were originally there, and attract other species in place of them. Thermal pollution can speed up the biological processes in plants and animals or lower the oxygen level in the water. Fish and other wildlife near the discharge source, may die.
  • 146. Equivalents of gerund are in Russian translation
    Иностранные языки

     

    1. Áàðõóäàðîâ Ë.Ñ., Øòåëèíã Ä.À. Ãðàììàòèêà àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. - Ì.: Âûñøàÿ øêîëà, 1973 424 ñòð.
    2. Áîíê Í.À., Ëóêúÿíîâà Í.À., Ïàìóõèíà Ë.Ã. Ó÷åáíèê àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà.  2-õ òîìàõ. Ìîñêâà Õàðüêîâ: Äåêîíò Òîðñèíã, 1997 637 ñòð. Ò1.
    3. Áîíê Í.À., Ëóêúÿíîâà Í.À., Ïàìóõèíà Ë.Ã. Ó÷åáíèê àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà.  2-õ òîìàõ. Ìîñêâà Õàðüêîâ: Äåêîíò Òîðñèíã, 1997 - 311 ñòð. Ò2.
    4. Âåðáà Ë.Ò. Ãðàììàòèêà ñîâðåìåííîãî àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. - Ê.: Çíàíèå, 2001 370 ñòð.
    5. Æèìàëåíêîâà Ò.Ì., Ìûëüöîâà Í.À. Óíèâåðñàëüíûé ñïðàâî÷íèê ïî ãðàììàòèêå àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ì.: ÃËÎÑÑÀ, 1997 0 250 ñòð.
    6. Çðàæåâñêàÿ Ò.À., Áåëÿåâà Ë.Ì. Òðóäíîñòè ïåðåâîäà ñ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà íà ðóññêèé. Ì.: Ìåæäóíàðîäíûå îòíîøåíèÿ, 1972 56 ñòð.
    7. Êà÷àëîâà Ê.Í., Èçðàèëåâè÷ Å.Å. Ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ñ óïðàæíåíèÿìè è êëþ÷àìè. Êèåâ: Ìåòîäèêà - 2000 365 ñòð. Ò1.
    8. Êà÷àëîâà Ê.Í., Èçðàèëåâè÷ Å.Å. Ïðàêòè÷åñêàÿ ãðàììàòèêà àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà ñ óïðàæíåíèÿìè è êëþ÷àìè. Êèåâ: Ìåòîäèêà - 2000 304 ñòð. Ò2.
    9. Õîôìàí Õ. Ñàìîó÷èòåëü àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Ê.: Çíàíèå, 2000 272 ñòð.
    10. Øàõíàçàðîâà Â.Ñ. Ïðàêòè÷åñêèé êóðñ àíãëèéñêîãî ÿçûêà. Àìåðèêàíñêèé âàðèàíò. Ì.: Âå÷å, 2000 464 ñòð.
    11. Bussines writhing specifics. Practical manual. Ïîä ðåä. Ôåäîðÿ÷åíêî Ë.Â. Ê.: Çíàíèå, 1998 114.
    12. English for daytime students. Ïîä ðåä. Ëåáåäîâè÷à Â.À. Ê.: Òàâðèÿ, 2001 100 ñòð.
    13. Kaushanskaya V.L. and others, A grammar of the English language. Ë.: Ïðîñâåùåíèå, 1973 285.
    14. Murphy Raymond. English Grammer in USE, Cambridge University Press, 1985 328.
    15. World English Institute / English Course // Learning about verbs, adverbs, prepositions. USA: WET, 2000 48 Book#2.
    16. Àíãëî-ðóññêèé ñëîâàðü / Ñîñò. Ìþëëåð Â.Ê. 22-å èçä. Ì.: Ðóññêèé ÿçûê, 1989 - 84 ñòð.
    17. Ðóññêî-àíãëèéñêèé ñëîâàðü / Ñîñò. Àõìàíîâà Î.Ñ. 19-å èçä. Ì.: Ðóññêèé ÿçûê, 1997 - 468 ñòð.
    18. Lewis C.S. Book 4 in the chronicles of Narnia The Silver Chair. - N.Y.: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970 218. V4.
    19. Lewis C.S. Book 4 in the chronicles of Narnia The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. - N.Y.: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970 186. V1.
    20. Ëüþèñ Êëàéâ, Ëåâ, êîëäóíüÿ è ïëàòÿíîé øêàô. Ïåðåâîä ñ àíãëèéñêîãî Îñòðîâñêàÿ Ò. - Ì.: Âàðèàíò, 1992 128 ñòð.
    21. Ëüþèñ Êëàéâ, Ñåðåáðÿííîå êðåñëî. Ïåðåâîä ñ àíãëèéñêîãî Øàïîøíèêîâà Ò. ïîä ðåä. Òðàóáåð Í.Ã. - Ì.: Âàðèàíò, 1992 - 105 ñòð.
    22. Iofik L.L.,Chakhoyan L.P. ,Readings in the theory of English grammar-Ë.: Ïðîñâåùåíèå.1972-220 ñòð.
    23. Jesperson O.,A modern English grammar on Historical Principles, Part IV, Heidelberg,1931; Part V,Copenhagen,1931-278p.
  • 147. Establishing and development of the theory of translation as a science in the 20 century
    Иностранные языки

    Interpretation is rendered in one mode: simultaneous. In simultaneous interpreting, the interpreter immediately speaks the message in the target-language whilst listening to it in the source language. Consecutive interpretation is rendered as “short consecutive interpretation” and “long consecutive interpretation”. In short consecutive interpretation, the interpreter relies on memory; each message segment being brief enough to memories. In long consecutive interpretation, the interpreter takes notes of the message to aid rendering long passages. These informal divisions are established with the client before the interpretation is effected, depending upon the subject, its complexity, and the purpose of the interpretation. On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter, usually in consecutive interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and translation; the interpreter must read aloud the source-language document to the target language as if it were written in the target language. Sight translation occurs usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and medical work. Relay interpretation occurs when several languages are the target language. A source language interpreter renders the message to a language common to every interpreter, who then renders the message to his or her specific target language. For example, a Japanese source message first is rendered to English to a group of interpreters, then it is rendered to Arabic, French, and Russian, the other target languages. In simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter renders the message in the target-language as quickly as he or she can formulate it from the source language, while the source-language speaker continuously speaks: sitting in a sound-proof booth, the SI interpreter speaks into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the source-language speaker via earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones. Moreover, SI is the common mode used by sign language interpreters. Note: Laymen often incorrectly describe SI and the SI interpreter as “simultaneous translation” and as the “simultaneous translator”, ignoring the definite distinction between interpretation and translation. In whispering interpreting, the interpreter sits or stands next to the small target-language audience whilst whispering a simultaneous interpretation of the matter to hand; this method requires no equipment. Chuchotage is used in circumstances where the majority of a group speaks the source language, and a minority (ideally no more than three persons) do not speak it. In consecutive interpreting, the interpreter speaks after the source-language speaker has finished speaking. The speech is divided into segments, and CI interpreter sits or stands beside the source-language speaker, listening and taking notes as the speaker progresses through the message. When the speaker pauses or finishes speaking, the interpreter then renders the entire message in the target-language. Consecutively-interpreted speeches, or segments of them, tend to be short. Fifty years ago, the CI interpreter would render speeches of 20 or 30 minutes, today, 10 or 15 minutes is considered long, particularly since audiences dont like to sit through 20 minutes of speech they cannot understand. Often, the source-language speaker is unaware that he or she may speak at length before the CI interpretation is rendered, and might stop after each sentence to await its target-language rendering. Sometimes, the inexperienced or poorly trained interpreter asks the speaker to pause after each sentence; sentence-by-sentence interpreting requires less memorization, yet its disadvantage is in the interpreter's not having heard the entire speech or its gist, and the overall message is harder to render both because of lack of context and because of interrupted delivery (e.g., imagine a joke told in bits and pieces, with breaks for translation in between). This method is often used in rendering speeches, depositions, recorded statements, court witness testimony, and medical and job interworks, but it is always best to complete a whole idea before it is translated. Full consecutive interpreting allows for the source-language message's full meaning to be understood before the interpreter renders it to the target language. This affords a truer, accurate, and accessible interpretation than does simultaneous interpretation. Liaison interpreting involves relaying what is spoken to one, between two, or among many people. This can be done after a short speech, or consecutively, sentence-by-sentence, or as chuchotage (whispering); aside from note taken then, no equipment is used. Conference interpreting is the interpretation of a conference, either simultaneously or consecutively, although the advent of multi-lingual meetings has consequently reduced the consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years. Conference interpretation is divided between two markets: the institutional and private. International institutions, holding multi-lingual meetings, often favour interpreting several foreign languages to the interpreters' mother tongues. Local private markets tend to bi-lingual meetings (the local language plus another) and the interpreters work both into and out of their mother tongues; the markets are not mutually exclusive. The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the only world-wide association of conference interpreters. Founded in 1953, it assembles more than 2.800 professional conference interpreters in more than 90 countries. Legal, court, or judicial interpreting, occurs in courts of justice, administrative tribunals, and wherever a legal proceeding is held (i.e. a conference room for a deposition or the locale for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be the consecutive interpretation of witnesses' testimony for example, or the simultaneous interpretation of entire proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the people attending. The right to a component interpreter for anyone who does not understand the language of the court (especially for the accused in a criminal trial) is usually considered a fundamental rule of justice. Therefore, this right is often guaranteed in national constitutions, declarations of rights, fundamental laws establishing the justice system or by precedents set by the highest courts. Depending upon the regulations and standards adhered to per state and venue, court interpreters usually work alone when interpreting consecutively, or as a team, when interpreting simultaneously. In addition to practical mastery of the source and target languages, through knowledge of law and legal and court procedures is required of court interpreters. They often are required to have formal authorization from the State to work in the Courts and then are called sworn interpreters. In many jurisdictions, the interpretation is considered an essential part of the evidence. Incompetent interpretation, or simply to swear in the interpreter, can lead to a mistrial. In focus group interpreting, an interpreter sits in a sound proof booth or in on observer's room with the clients. There is usually a one way mirror between the interpreter and the focus group participants, wherein the interpreter can observe the participants, but they only see their own reflection. The interpreter hears the conversation in the original language through headphones and simultaneously interpreters into the target language for the clients. Since there are usually anywhere between 2 to 12 (or more) participants in any given focus group, experienced interpreters will not only interpret the phrases and meaning but will also mimic intonation, speech patterns, tone, laughs, and emotions. In escort interpreting, an interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, on a visit, or to a meeting or interwork. An interpreter in this role is called an escort interpreter or an escorting interpreter. This is liaison interpreting. Also known as community interpreting is the type of interpreting occurring in fields such as legal, health, and local government, social, housing, environmental health, education, and welfare services. In community interpreting, factors exist which determine and affect language and communication production, such as speech's emotional content, hostile or polarized social surroundings, its created stress, the power relationship among participants, and the interpreter's degree of responsibility in many cases more than extreme; in some cases, even the life of the other person depends upon the interpreter's work. Medical interpreting is a subset of public service interpreting, consisting of communication, among medical personnel and the patient and his or her family, facilitated by an interpreter, usually formally certified and qualified to provide such interpretation services. In some situations medical employees who are multilingual may participate part-time as members of internal language banks. The medical interpreter must have a strong knowledge of medicine, common medical procedures, the patient interwork, the medical examination processes, and the daily workings of the hospital or clinic were he or she works, in order to effectively serve both the patient and the medical personnel. Moreover, and very important, medical interpreters often are cultural liaisons for people (regardless of language) who are unfamiliar with or uncomfortable in hospital, clinical, or medical settings. When a hearing person speaks, an interpreter will render the speaker's meaning into the sign language used by the deaf party. When a deaf person signs, an interpreter will render the meaning expressed in the signs into the spoken language for the hearing party, which is sometimes referred to as voice interpreting or voicing. This may be performed either as simultaneous or consecutive interpreting, Skilled sign language interpreters will position themselves in a room or space that allows them both to be seen by deaf participants and heard by hearing participants clearly and to see and hear participants clearly. In some circumstances, an interpreter may interpret from one sign language into an alternate sign language. Deaf people also work as interpreters. They team with hearing counterparts to provide interpretation for deaf individuals who may not share the standard sign language used in that country. In other cases the hearing interpreted sign may be too pidgin to be understood clearly and the Deaf interpreter might interpret it into a more clear translation. They also relay information from one form of language to another for example, when a person is signing visually, the deaf interpreter could be hired to copy those signs into a deaf-blind person's hand plus include visual information. By its very nature, media interpreting has to be conducted in the simultaneous mode. It is provided particularly for live television coverages such as press conferences, live or taped interworks with political figures, musicians, artists, sportsmen or people from the business circle. In this type of interpreting, the interpreter has to sit in a sound-proof booth where ideally he/she can see the speakers on a monitor ant the set. All equipment should be checked before recording begins. In particular, satellite connections have to be double-checked to ensure that the interpreter's voice is not sent back and the interpreter gets to hear only one channel at a time. In the case of interworks recorded outside the studio and some current affairs programme, the interpreter interprets what he or she hears on a TV monitor. Background noise can be a serious problem. The interpreter working for the media has to sound as slick and confident as a television presenter. Media interpreting has gained more visibility and presence especially after the Gulf War. Television channels have begun to hire staff simultaneous interpreters. The interpreter renders the press conference, telephone beepers, interworks and similar live coverage for the workers. It is more stressful than other types of interpreting as the interpreter has to deal with a wide range of technical problems coupled with the control room's hassle and wrangling during live coverage.

  • 148. Ethernet
    Компьютеры, программирование

    Правила 4-х повторителей и максимальной длины каждого из сегментов легко использовать на практике для определения корректности конфигурации сети. Однако эти правила применимы только тогда, когда все соединяемые сегменты представляют собой одну физическую среду, то есть в нашем случае толстый коаксиальный кабель, а все повторители также удовлетворяют требованиям физического стандарта 10Base-5. Аналогичные простые правила существуют и для сетей, все сегменты которых удовлетворяют требованиям другого физического стандарта, например, 10Base-T или 10Base-F. Однако для смешанных случаев, когда в одной сети Ethernet присутствуют сегменты различных физических стандартов, правила, основанные только на количестве повторителей и максимальных длинных сегментов становятся более запутанными. Поэтому более надежно рассчитывать время полного оборота сигнала по смешанной сети с учетом задержек в каждом типе сегментов и в каждом типе повторителей и сравнивать его с максимально допустимым временем, которое для любых сетей Ethernet с битовой скоростью 10 Мб/с не должно превышать 575 битовых интервалов (количество битовых интервалов в пакете минимальной длины с учетом преамбулы). Примеры таких расчетов будут даны после рассмотрения всех физических стандартов Ethernet.

  • 149. Euphemisms: history, types and examples
    Иностранные языки

    Other common euphemisms include:

    • getting smashed or hammered instead of 'drinking' or 'being drunk'
    • big, fluffy, full-figured or heavy-set instead of 'fat'
    • lost their lives for 'were killed'
    • wellness for benefits and treatments that tend to only be used in times of sickness
    • restroom for toilet room in American English (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism)
    • a love of musical theatre, light in the loafers, good fashion sense or confirmed bachelor for male homosexuality
    • woman in sensible shoes for lesbian
    • acting like rabbits, making love to, getting it on, cheeky time, doing it, making the beast with two backs, or sleeping with for having sex with
    • sanitary landfill for garbage dump (and a temporary garbage dump is a transfer station), also often called a Civic Amenity in the UK
    • ill-advised for very poor or bad
    • an intestinal release of pressure for fart
    • pre-owned vehicles or even "pre-loved" for used cars
    • motivation for bribe
    • a student being held back a grade level for having failed or flunked the grade level
    • correctional facility for prison
    • peer homework help or comparing answers for cheating
    • the north of Ireland for Northern Ireland, which is seen by many Irish people as a term imposed by the British and therefore a profanity; however, saying the north of Ireland may be primarily a way of identifying oneself with the Irish Nationalist cause, rather than a euphemism
    • the big C for cancer (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors euphemistically use technical terminology when discussing cancer in front of patients, e.g., "c.a." or "neoplasia"/"neoplastic process", "carcinoma" for "tumor"); euphemisms for cancer are used even more so in the Netherlands, because the Dutch word for cancer can be used as a curse word
    • bathroom tissue, t.p., or bath tissue for toilet paper (usually used by toilet paper manufacturers)
    • custodian or caretaker for janitor (Also originally a euphemism in Latin, it means doorman. In the British Secret Service, it may still carry the ancient meaning. It does in the novels of John le Carré.)
    • sanitation worker (or, sarcastically, sanitation officer or sanitation engineer), or garbologist, for "bin man" or garbage man
    • economically depressed neighborhood or culturally-deprived environment for ghetto or slum
    • force, police action, peace process or conflict for war
    • alcohol-related, single-car crash for drunk driver
    • mature or been around the block for old or elderly
    • haem or heme (Americanism) for blood, often used in medical settings ("severe heme loss").
    • enhanced interrogation technique for torture
    • persuasion for torture
    • take legal action for sue
    • fee for fine
    • gaming for gambling
    • specific about what one eats for being a picky eater
    • intellectually challenged for being mentally retarded
    • Before that, mentally retarded for feeble minded
    • Before that, feeble minded for halfwit
    • adult entertainment, adult material, or erotica for pornography
    • to have been paid for 'being fired from or by one's employer'
    • to cut excesses (in a budget) for to fire employees
    • legal capital for stated capital
    • gravitationally challenged for clumsy
    • gender reassignment for sex change
    • differently abled for disabled
    • chemical dependency for drug addiction
    • dual-diagnosed for having both mental illness and drug problems
    • co-morbidity for simultaneous existence of related mental and physical health issues (a dysphemism, perhaps...)
    • gentlemen's club for go-go bar or strip club
    • fertility center for infertility center
    • mental health center for mental illness center
    • it's snowin' down south for your slip is showing
    • vertically-challenged for short
    • feeling no pain (and dozens of others) for drunk
    • your fly is undone for your zip is down
  • 150. Excel и Access
    Компьютеры, программирование

    Приложения для работы с базами данных можно разделить на три основных категории:

    • Управление транзакциями. Эти формы, работают непосредственно с таблицами, при условии, что активна только одна таблица. Если для добавления и редактирования информации в более чем одной таблице используется единственная форма, то можно создать запрос на обновление, включающий все нужные поля, а затем создать форму на основе этого запроса. Главная форма также может использовать единственную таблицу в качестве источника данных, но, кроме того, включать подчиненные формы, в качестве источника данных которых используются другие таблицы. Подчиненная форма, которая появляется ниже текстовых полей главной формы, используется для просмотра и добавления данных в таблицу, связанную с подчиненной формой.
    • Доступ к данным. Такие формы предназначены только для просмотра информации. Формы, предназначенные только для доступа к данным, можно разрабатывать как с целью перспективного планирования действий, так и для принятия экстренного решения. Экстренное решение приводит к единственному действию, такому, например, как предоставление большого кредита клиенту, или посылка представителя по продажам для определения причины отказа клиента от товара. Приложения Access позволяют использовать три уровня вложенности форм: главная, подчиненная и подчиненная форма, включенная в предыдущую подчиненную форму. Формы, предназначенные только для доступа к данным, в качестве источника данных часто используют запросы, которые суммируют данные по временным промежуткам.
    • Администрирование баз данных. Приложения этой категории выполняют административные функции такие, как создание баз данных или таблиц, разграничение прав доступа пользователей к объектам баз данных, обеспечение безопасности с помощью шифрования, периодическое уплотнение базы данных, а также операции резервного копирования.
  • 151. Forms of Ownership
    Иностранные языки

    Now lets turn the important question: which of the considered forms of ownership is better? Usually this question is in the form of a dilemma: public or private property? In fact, such an alternative formulation of the question is counterproductive. It should go about finding the most rational, optimal combination of both forms. Criterion for evaluation can be only one: what kind of property in a given historical moment and in longer term, offers higher level needs satisfaction of the population, while taking into account the indicators of life quality. From the combination of these criteria, preference should be given to private property, which is now the core of the developed market economies of the West. To create just such an economic system, developing and former socialist countries are striving. It contains the profit motive and competition, the realization of which brings the highest economic efficiency and better meets the needs. However, private ownership has its drawbacks, especially regarding employment and unemployment. After all, the profit motive and competition is forcing businesses constantly to seek perhaps a greater reduction in production costs, including economy in labor force. In Western countries, a wave of privatization in the 80's, the first half of the 90's led to a reduction in the proportion of state ownership in the production of GDP from 9 am to 7% on average, that means overcoming the legacy of the prewar and early postwar years. In the 30-ies state's direct participation in the economy expanded in the process of overcoming the deepest crisis in the history of capitalism of 1929 - 1933 years. State ownership in the prewar years in most Western countries was significantly strengthened as a sort of "backup" of private enterprises, that had revealed the sequential weaknesses, and as an instrument of maintaining the strength of the social system. In the late 40's - 50's in Western Europe and Japan, private capital was temporarily weakened by war damage and certain other circumstances. Such a gap as a need occurred was filled by the state, what is now not necessary.

  • 152. Functional Materials Based on Self-Assembly of Polymeric Supramolecules
    Иностранные языки

    ×òîáû ïðîèëëþñòðèðîâàòü óïðàâëÿåìîå ðàñïîçíàâàíèåì ôîðìèðîâàíèå ìàêðîìîëåêóë â ïîëèìåðàõ, à òàêæå ïîñëåäóþùóþ ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèþ è ïîäãîòîâêó ôóíêöèîíàëüíûõ ìàòåðèàëîâ è íàíî-îáúåêòîâ, ìû ñîñðåäîòî÷èìñÿ íà àðõèòåêòóðå â ôîðìå «ãðåá¸íêè», âîçíèêíîâåíèþ êîòîðîé ñïîñîáñòâóåò ïîâûøåííàÿ ðàñòâîðèìîñòü òàê íàçûâàåìûõ ïîëèìåðîâ-ïðóòèêîâ, ïîêðûòûõ âîëîñêàìè. Ñàìûé ïðîñòîé ñëó÷àé - ãèáêèé ïîëèìåð, èìåþùèé ñâÿçàííûå ó÷àñòêè ïî ñâîåé îñíîâå. Ïîýòîìó îñíîâà îáû÷íî ïîëÿðíà, à îòòàëêèâàþùèåñÿ íåïîëÿðíûå áîêîâûå ãðóïïû ìîãóò áûòü ñâÿçàíû äîïîëíèòåëüíûìè ñâÿçÿìè, ÷òî ïðèâîäèò ê îáðàçîâàíèþ ìàêðîìîëåêóë â ôîðìå «ãðåá¸íêè», êîòîðûå â ñâîþ î÷åðåäü ñàìîîðãàíèçîâûâàþòñÿ. Ìû øèðîêî èñïîëüçîâàëè îáðàçîâàíèå âîäîðîäíîé ñâÿçè èëè êîîðäèíàöèþ, ÷òîáû ñâÿçàòü áîêîâûå öåïè ñ ïîëèìåðíîé îñíîâîé. Àíòîíèåòòè è äð. èñïîëüçîâàëè èîííûå âçàèìîäåéñòâèÿ â êîìïëåêñàõ ïîëèýëåêòðîëèòàïîâåðõíîñòíî-àêòèâíîãî âåùåñòâà, ÷òîáû ñôîðìèðîâàòü êîìïëåêñû ïîâåðõíîñòíî-àêòèâíîãî âåùåñòâà ïîëèýëåêòðîëèòà â ôîðìå «ãðåá¸íêè». Ïîëó÷åííûå ñàìîîðãàíèçîâàííûå ìíîãîäîìåííûå ñòðóêòóðû ìîãóò áûòü âûðîâíåíû ñ èñïîëüçîâàíèåì, íàïðèìåð, ïîòîêà, ÷òîáû ïðèáëèçèòü èõ ê ìîíîäîìåííûì. Ìîæíî òàêæå íàñòðàèâàòü ñâîéñòâà ïîäãîíêîé õàðàêòåðà áîêîâûõ öåïåé. Íàïðèìåð, åñëè áîêîâûå öåïè - ÷àñòè÷íî ôòîðèðîâàíû, ïîëó÷àþòñÿ íèçêèå ðåçóëüòàòû ïîâåðõíîñòíîé ýíåðãèè, ÷òî ó÷èòûâàåò èñïîëüçîâàíèå, âåäóùåå ê óìåíüøåíèþ òðåíèÿ.  äðóãîì ñëó÷àå, îñíîâà ñîñòîèò èç äâîéíîé âèíòîâîé ñïèðàëè ÄÍÊ, è ñàìîîðãàíèçàöèÿ äîñòèãàåòñÿ èîííûì ïðèñîåäèíåíèåì êàòèîííûõ ëèïîñîì èëè êàòèîííûõ ïîâåðõíîñòíî-àêòèâíûõ âåùåñòâ ê àíèîííûì ôîñôîðíîêèñëûì ó÷àñòêàì. Ýòî ó÷èòûâàåò ðàçðàáîòêó ìàòåðèàëîâ ïîìèìî òðàäèöèîííîãî äèàïàçîíà áèîõèìè÷åñêèõ ïðèëîæåíèé. Íàïðèìåð, êðàñèòåëü ìîæåò áûòü âñòàâëåí â ñïèðàëè, ïîäàâëÿÿ èõ òåíäåíöèþ ê ñêîïëåíèþ è ïðèâîäÿ ê ìíîãîîáåùàþùèì ñâîéñòâàì, òàêèì êàê øàáëîíû äëÿ ôîòîííûõ ïðèëîæåíèé.  òàêîé ñòðóêòóðå ïîëèìåðíàÿ îñíîâà ìîæåò ñîäåðæàòü äâà èëè äàæå áîëüøåå êîëè÷åñòâî âèäîâ îáÿçàòåëüíûõ ó÷àñòêîâ, ãäå ìîãóò áûòü ñâÿçàíû ðàçëè÷íûå äîáàâêè.

  • 153. Games activity at the foreign language lesson as one of the basic ways of learning English at primary school
    Педагогика

    Currently, the main principle of the modern educator is not only focused on the impact of each student, his personal settings, but also optimization of the joint activities of students. Great help in providing this training and educational games. They activate the learning process and compared with the traditional form of the classes have some advantages., in pedagogy, as well as in many other fields of science, is changing the practices and working methods, in particular, all the more widespread of various games.of all, the implementation of gaming techniques directly related to the number of common social and cultural processes to search for new forms of social organization and cultural relations between the teacher and students. The need to improve students' communication culture in the didactic process is dictated by the need to improve the cognitive activity of students, stimulate their interest in the subject.the processes occurring in a country that embraced all spheres of our lives: increased contacts with foreign countries, the opportunity to communicate with other people at all levels (inter-state communication, tourism, student exchanges and student, etc.) This, in turn, necessitated the study of foreign languages. Сommunication in any language requires a large vocabulary, which is accumulated over several years. It follows that to study the language should begin in early childhood. This caused a search for new methods of teachers to enable children to effectively and efficiently, and most importantly with interest to learn a foreign language. Given the fact that interest is the best stimulus to learning, to try to use every opportunity to relieve the child through play activities in learning the language.use of games in the English lessons promotes communicative activity character education lessons focus on the psychological development of students rechemyslitelnoy means the language is spoken, optimization of intellectual activity of students in the learning process, the complexity of learning, development and intensification of its forms of group work. We all know that is easier to memorize something that is interesting, but it is interesting that exciting, does not cause boredom. In an entertaining form of a game you can work out and repeat the course material, greatly add to your active vocabulary, and strengthen the skills to get the correct spelling of English words.game - a huge incentive to succeed where sometimes ineffective many traditional exercises. The lesson can be an unforgettable journey into the world of the English language, to enable not only strong, but weak students show their creativity. Even the most insignificant success - a huge step towards knowledge.my work I want to dwell in detail on the use of language games in English class and share their experiences and best practices in this area.is difficult to remember the spelling, especially if they are not written by the rules. And during the game, the competition is faster. Many well known since childhood game "Hangman": given the first and last letters of the word, and dashes denote missing letters. Who will restore the first floor - the one and the winner.

  • 154. History of Great Britain
    История

    In 1760 George II was succeeded by his grandson, George III. The new king had a deep sense of moral duty and tried to play a direct role in governing his country, though he had to face probably the worst political problem in the whole British history. Long accustomed to a considerable degree of self-government, and freed, after 1763, from the French danger, British colonists in America resented any attempts to make them pay a share of the cost of imperial defense in the form of assorted taxes and duties. They also resented attempts to treat colonial legislatures as secondary to the government in London. American resistance led to the calling of the First Continental Congress in 1774, and in April 1775 war broke out at Lexington and concord in America. The British felt the rebellious colonists had to be brought to their senses, and king George III was firmly against giving in to them. Though British governmental authority in the 13 colonies collapsed in 1775, forces were able to occupy first Boston and later New York City and Philadelphia, but the Americans did not give up. France was brought into the war on the American side in 1778, then the Spanish and the Dutch also joined the anti-British side. In 1783 Britain had to recognize American independence in the Treaty of Paris. The 13 British colonies were recognized as independent states and were granted all British territory south of Great Lakes; Florida and Minorca were ceded to Spain, and some West Indian and African colonies to France.

  • 155. Homonyms in Modern English
    Иностранные языки

    In the discussion of polysemy and context we have seen that one of the ways of discriminating between different meanings of a word is the interdivitation of these meanings in terms of their synonyms, e.g. the two meanings of the adjective handsome are synonymously interdivted as handsome-'beautiful' (usually about men) and handsome-'considerable, ample' (about sums, sizes, etc.).it seems impossible to" speak of identity or similarity of lexical meaning as a whole as it is only the denotation component that may be described as identical or similar. If we analyse words that are usually considered synonymous, e.g. to die, to pass away; to begin, to commence, etc., we find that the connotation component or, to be more exact, the stylistic reference of these words is entirely different and it is only the similarity of the denotation meaning that makes them synonymous. The words, e.g. to die, to walk, to smile, etc., may be considered identical as to their stylistic reference or emotive charge, but as there is no similarity of denotation meaning they are never felt as synonymous words.it does not seem possible to speak of identity of meaning as a criterion of synonymy as identity of meaning is very rare even among monosynaptic words. In fact, cases of complete synonymy are very few and are, as a rule, confined to technical nomenclatures where we can find monosynaptic terms completely identical in meanings as, for example, spirant and fricative in phonetics. Words in synonymic sets are in general differentiated because of some element of opposition in each member of the set. The word handsome, e.g., is distinguished from its synonym beautiful mainly because the former implies the beauty of a male person or broadly speaking only of human beings, whereas beautiful is opposed to it as having no such restrictions in its semantic structure. [2] Thus it seems necessary to modify the traditional definition and to word it as follows: synonyms are words different in sound-form but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings. Synonymous relationship is observed only between similar denotational meanings of phonemically different words. Differentiation of synonyms may be observed in different semantic components-denotational or connotation.should be noted, however, that the difference in denotation meaning cannot exceed certain limits and is found only as a variation of some common denotational component. The verbs look, seem, appear, e.g., are worked as members of one synonymic set as all three of them possess a common denotational semantic component "to be in one's work. Semantic similarity of affixation morphemes is treated in more detail in the chapter about Word-Formation in Prof. Ginsburgs textbook on lexicology, judgment, but not necessarily in fact" and come into comparison in this meaning (cf. he seems (looks) (appears) tired). A more detailed analysis shows that there is a certain difference in the meaning of each verb: seem suggests a personal opinion based on evidence (e.g. nothing seems right when one is out of sorts); look implies that opinion is based on a visual division (e.g. the city looks its worst in March), appear sometimes suggests a distorted division (e.g. the setting sun made the spires appear ablaze). Thus similarity of denotational meaning of all members of the synonymic series is combined with a certain difference in the meaning of each member. [3]follows that relationship of synonymy implies certain differences in the denotational meaning of synonyms. In this connection a few words should be said about the traditional classification of vocabulary units into ideographic and stylistic synonyms. This classification proceeds from the assumption that synonyms may differ either in the denotational meaning (ideographic synonyms) or the connotation meaning, i.e. stylistic reference (stylistic synonyms). This assumption cannot be accepted as synonymous words always differ in the denotational component irrespective of the identity or difference of stylistic reference. The stylistic reference in the synonymous verbs seem, appear, look may be regarded as identical though we observe some difference in their denotational component. Difference in the denotational semantic component is also found in synonymous words possessing different connotational components. The verbs see and behold, e.g., are usually treated as stylistic synonyms; see is stylistically neutral and behold is described as bookish or poetic. It can be readily observed, however, that the difference between the two verbs is not confined solely to stylistic reference. Though they have a common denotational component 'to take cognizance of something by physical (or mental) vision', there is a marked difference in their comparable meanings. The verb behold suggests only 'looking at that which is seen', e.g. "behold them sitting in their glory" (Shelley), The verb see denotes 'have or use power of sight' (e.g. the blind cannot see), 'understand' (e.g. don't you see my meaning?), have knowledge or experience of (e.g. he has seen a good deal in his long life) and others., the interrelation of the denotational and the connotational meaning of synonyms is rather complex. Difference or rather variation of the denotational component does not imply difference in either the stylistic reference or the emotive charge of members of synonymic series. Difference of the connotational semantic component is invariably accompanied by some variation of the denotational meaning of synonyms. Therefore it would be more consistent to subdivide synonymous words into purely ideographic (denotational) and ideographic-stylistic synonyms. It should be pointed out that neither criterion the traditional definition of synonyms modified version suggested here provide for any objective criterion of similarity of meaning. Judgment as to semantic similarity is based solely on the linguistic intuition of the analyst. [4]is sometimes argued that the meaning of two words is identical if they can denote the same referent, in other words, if an object or a certain class of objects can always be denoted by either of the two words. For example in the sentence "Washington is the capital of the United States"-"Washington" and "the capital of the United States" have obviously the same referent, but there is no linguistic relationship of synonymy between the two lexical units.attempts have been made to introduce into the definition of synonymy the criterion of interchangeability in linguistic contexts. It is argued that for the linguistic similarity of meaning implies that the words are synonymous if either of them can occur in the same context. In this case the relationship of synonymy is defined as follows: "If A and B have almost identical environment except chiefly for sentences which contain both, we say they are synonyms" (cf. eye-doctor, oculist).well-known definition also proceeding from the contextual approach is the definition of synonyms as words which can replace each other in any given context without the slightest alteration either in the denotational or connotational meaning.contextual approach also invites criticism as words interchangeable in any given context are rarely found. This fact may be explained as follows: firstly, words synonymous in some lexical contexts may display no synonymy in others. As one of the English scholars aptly remarks, the comparison of the sentences "the rainfall in April was abnormal" and "the rainfall in April was exceptional" may give us grounds for assuming that exceptional and abnormal are synonymous. The same adjectives in a different context are by no means synonymous, as we may see by comparing "my son is exceptional" and "my son is abnormal". [5], it is evident that interchangeability alone cannot serve as a criterion of synonymy. Werner safely assumes that synonyms are words interchangeable in some contexts. But the reverse is certainly not true as semantically different words of the same part of speech are, as a rule, interchangeable in quite a number of contexts. For example, in the sentence "I saw a little girl playing in the garden" the adjective little may be formally replaced by a number of semantically different adjectives, e.g. ditty, tall, English, etc.a more acceptable definition of synonyms seems to be the following: Synonyms are words different in their sound-form, but similar in their denotational meaning or meanings and interchangeable at least in some contexts., the degree of synonymy of words may be calculated by the number of contexts in which these words are interchangeable. The simplest technique of such semantic analysis is substitution in various contexts. It is argued that two synonymous adjectives, e.g. deep and profound, could be analyzed in relation to each other by ascertaining how far they are interchangeable in different contexts, say, in combination with water, voice, remark, relief; what changes of denotational meaning and emotive charge occur when they are interchanged (cf. deep relief-profound relief); what is their proper antonym in each of these combinations (shallow, high, superficial); in how many of the possible contexts they are interchangeable without any considerable alteration of the denotational meaning, etc.English word-stock is extremely rich. Synonymic accounted for by abundant borrowing. '" English Quite a number of words in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or French origin. For instance, out of thirteen words making up the set see, behold, descry, espy, work, survey, contemplate, observe, notice, remark, note, discern, perceive only see and behold can be traced back to Old English (OE. seen and beheading), all others are either French or Latin borrowings. [6], a characteristic pattern of English synonymic sets is the pattern including the native and the borrowed words. Among the best investigated are the so called double-scale patterns: native versus Latin (e.g. bodily-corporal, brotherly- fraternal); native versus Greek or French (e.g. answer- reply, fiddle-violin). In most cases the synonyms differ in their stylistic reference, too. The native word is usually colloquial (e.g. bodily, brotherly), whereas the borrowed word may as a rule be described as bookish or highly literary (e.g. corporal, fraternal).by side with this pattern there exists in English a subsidiary one based on a triple-scale of synonyms: native- French and Latin or Greek [e.g. begin (start)-commence (Fr.)-initiate (/.); rise-mount (Fr.)-ascend (/,)]. In most of these sets the native synonym is felt as more colloquial, the Latin or Greek one is characterized by bookish stylistic reference, whereas the French stands between the two extremes. There are some minor points of interest that should be discussed in connection with the problem of synonymy. It has often been found that subjects prominent in the interests of a community tend to attract a large number of synonyms. It is common knowledge that in Beowulf there are 37 synonyms for hero or prince and at least a dozen for battle and fight. In Modern American English there are at least twenty words used to denote money: beans, bucks, the chips, do-re-mi, the needful, wherewithal, etc. This linguistic phenomenon is usually described as the law of synonymic attraction , it has also been observed that when a particular word is given a transferred meaning its synonyms tend to develop along parallel lines. We know that in early New English the verb overlook was employed in the meaning of 'look with an evil eye upon, cast a spell over' from which there developed the meaning 'deceive' first recorded in 1596. Exactly half a century later we find oversee a synonym of overlook employed in the meaning of 'deceive'. This form of analogy active in the semantic development of synonyms is referred to as "radiation of synonyms".

  • 156. Human being hypostases in "Gulliver’s travels" by Johnatan Swift
    Разное

    THE GENERAL SPIRIT OF THE PERIOD. The writers of the reigns of Anne and George I called their period the Augustan Age, because they flattered themselves that with them English life and literature had reached a culminating period of civilization and elegance corresponding to that which existed at Rome under the Emperor Augustus. They believed also that both in the art of living and in literature they had rediscovered and were practicing the principles of the best periods of Greek and Roman life. In our own time this judgment appears equally arrogant and mistaken. In reality the men of the early eighteenth century, like those of the Restoration, largely misunderstood the qualities of the classical spirit, and thinking to reproduce them attained only a superficial, pseudo-classical, imitation. The main characteristics of the period and its literature continue, with some further development, those of the Restoration, and may be summarily indicated as follows:

    1. Interest was largely centered in the practical well being either of society as a whole or of one's own social class or set. The majority of writers, furthermore, belonged by birth or association to the upper social stratum and tended to overemphasize its artificial conventions, often looking with contempt on the other classes. To them conventional good breeding, fine manners, the pleasures of the leisure class, and the standards of 'The Town' (fashionable London society) were the only part of life much worth regarding.
    2. The men of this age carried still further the distrust and dislike felt by the previous generation for emotion, enthusiasm, and strong individuality both in life and in literature, and exalted Reason and Regularity as their guiding stars. The terms 'decency' and 'neatness' were forever on their lips. They sought a conventional uniformity in manners, speech, and indeed in nearly everything else, and were uneasy if they deviated far from the approved, respectable standards of the body of their fellows. Great poetic imagination, therefore, could scarcely exist among them, or indeed supreme greatness of any sort.
    3. They had little appreciation for external Nature or for any beauty except that of formalized Art. A forest seemed to most of them merely wild and gloomy, and great mountains chiefly terrible, but they took delight in gardens of artificially trimmed trees and in regularly plotted and alternating beds of domestic flowers. The Elizabethans also, as we have seen, had had much more feeling for the terror than for the grandeur of the sublime in Nature, but the Elizabethans had had nothing of the elegant primness of the Augustans.
    4. In speech and especially in literature, most of all in poetry, they were given to abstractness of thought and expression, intended to secure elegance, but often serving largely to substitute superficiality for definiteness and significant meaning. They abounded in personifications of abstract qualities and ideas ('Laughter, heavenly maid,' Honor, Glory, Sorrow, and so on, with prominent capital letters), a sort of a pseudo-classical substitute for emotion.
    5. They were still more fully confirmed than the men of the Restoration in the conviction that the ancients had attained the highest possible perfection in literature, and some of them made absolute submission of judgment to the ancients, especially to the Latin poets and the Greek, Latin, and also the seventeenth century classicizing French critics. Some authors seemed timidly to desire to be under authority and to glory in surrendering their independence, individuality, and originality to foreign and long-established leaders and principles.
    6. Under these circumstances the effort to attain the finished beauty of classical literature naturally resulted largely in a more or less shallow formal smoothness.
    7. There was a strong tendency to moralizing, which also was not altogether free from conventionality and superficiality.
  • 157. Humanity in J. Conrad's and W. Somerset's creativity
    Иностранные языки

    The Elizabethan era saw a great flourishing of literature, especially in the field of drama. The Italian Renaissance had rediscovered the ancient Greek and Roman theatre, and this was instrumental in the development of the new drama, which was then beginning to evolve apart from the old mystery and miracle plays of the Middle Ages. The Italians were particularly inspired by Seneca (a major tragic playwright and philosopher, the tutor of Nero) and Plautus (its comic clichés, especially that of the boasting soldier had a powerful influence on the Renaissance and after). However, the Italian tragedies embraced a principle contrary to Seneca's ethics: showing blood and violence on the stage. In Seneca's plays such scenes were only acted by the characters [18, 123]. But the English playwrights were intrigued by Italian model: a conspicuous community of Italian actors had settled in London and Giovanni Florio had brought much of the Italian language and culture to England. It is also true that the Elizabethan Era was a very violent age and that the high incidence of political assassinations in Renaissance Italy (embodied by Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince) did little to calm fears of popish plots. As a result, representing that kind of violence on the stage was probably more cathartic for the Elizabethan spectator. Following earlier Elizabethan plays such as Gorboduc by Sackville & Norton and The Spanish Tragedy by Kyd that was to provide much material for Hamlet, William Shakespeare stands out in this period as a poet and playwright as yet unsurpassed. Shakespeare was not a man of letters by profession, and probably had only some grammar school education. He was neither a lawyer, nor an aristocrat as the "university wits" that had monopolised the English stage when he started writing. But he was very gifted and incredibly versatile, and he surpassed "professionals" as Robert Greene who mocked this "shake-scene" of low origins [23, 145]. Though most dramas met with great success, it is in his later years (marked by the early reign of James I) that he wrote what have been considered his greatest plays: Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, a tragicomedy that inscribes within the main drama a brilliant pageant to the new king. Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet which made significant changes to Petrarch's model.

  • 158. Hазначение таможенного перевозчика. Его права и обязанности
    Разное

    Помимо конкретных обязанностей, непосредственно связанных с обеспечением перевозки товаров и закрепленных в договоре, таможенное законодательство возлагает на таможенного перевозчика выполнение специфических обязанностей, обеспечивающих доставку товаров. К их числу относятся:

    1. доставка товаров и документов на них без какого-либо изменения их упаковки или состояния, без использования в каких-либо иных целях, кроме доставки, в определенное таможенным органом отправления место, где они должны оставаться после прибытия;
    2. соблюдение установленных таможенным органом отправления сроков доставки товаров и документов на них и маршрутов движения, которые определяются в соответствии с обычными сроками доставки исходя из возможностей транспортного средства, установленного маршрута и других условий перевозки;
    3. исключение одновременной перевозки других товаров с товарами, находящимися под таможенным контролем;
    4. обеспечение сохранности перевозимых товаров;
    5. представление товаров и документов на них таможенному органу назначения, а по требованию этого таможенного органа фактическое предъявление товаров;
    6. размещение товаров, прибывших в место назначения вне времени работы таможенного органа, в зоне таможенного контроля;
    7. недопустимость оставления без разрешения таможенного органа назначения товаров после их доставки без присмотра, а также изменения места стоянки, выгрузки, перегрузки товаров, первоначального нахождения товаров, вскрытия упаковки, упакования и переупакования товаров, изменения, удаления и уничтожения средств таможенной идентификации.
  • 159. Hассмотрение системы государственной поддержки малого предпринимательства
    Экономика

    Возможно несколько организационных форм предпринимательства в зависимости от желания, возможностей, личностных качеств, семейных обстоятельств, профессии, места жительства и других факторов. Имеющиеся учебные мастерские при учебных центрах службы занятости являются одним из каналов, содействующих предпринимательству, где, во-первых, отрабатываются профессиональные навыки, во-вторых, обеспечивается временное трудоустройство, в-третьих, приобретаются не только профессиональные, но и организационные навыки по созданию подобной мастерской, например, в районном центре. На базе районных центров занятости могут быть созданы подобные мастерские, где помещение и оборудование могут быть предоставлены на льготных условиях районным центром занятости. Фонд содействия занятости совместно с районными центрами может оказывать финансовую поддержку, информационную и консультативную помощь/3/. Правовая форма может быть различной, учредителем такой мастерской может быть районный центр занятости либо коллектив людей, которые решили создать такую мастерскую. Парикмахерская, вязальная мастерская, мастерская по изготовлению и ремонту меховых изделий, мастерская по изготовлению изделий из лозы вот лишь несколько возможных сфер деятельности таких организаций. Фонд может оказывать содействие на тех условиях, которые уже были описаны, людям, решившим самостоятельно создать небольшую фирму, объединяющую людей, имеющих профессии по различным специальностям. Кроме первоначальной финансовой и информационной поддержки, фонд может оказывать организационную помощь:

  • 160. Hасчет двухступенчатого редуктора
    Разное

     

    1. Чернавский С.А. Курсовое проектирование деталей машин: Учебное пособие для техникумов . М.: Машиностроение, 1980.351 с.
    2. Шейнблит А.Е. Курсовое проектирование деталей машин: Учебное пособие для техникумов. М.: Высшая школа, 1991. 432 с.: ил.
    3. Палей М.А. Допуски и посадки: Справочник: В 2ч. Ч.1. 7-е изд., - Л.: Политехника, 1991. 576с.: ил.
    4. В.И.Анурьев Справочник конструктора-машиностроителя: т.1,2,3.-М.:Машиностроение, 1982г.576 с.,ил.
    5. Еремеев В.К., Горнов Ю.Н. Курсовое проектирование деталей машин: Методическое пособие и задания к проектам для студентов заочной формы обучения всех технических специальностей. - И.: Изд-во ИрГТУ, 2004г. 128 с.