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The famous English writer Agatha Christie

Great Britain has presented the world many great writers and poets. Products of some of them it is possible to re-read set of times. One more idol is the English writer Agatha Christie. We call her “incomparable lady” and consider the classic of modern detective.

Agatha Mary Clarissa Miller was born on 15 September 1890 in Torquay, England. Agatha’s life was transformed when she met Max. For the next 30 years she accompanied him on archaeological digs in the Middle East. She was in her lifetime one of the most informed women in the world in the archaeological field.

Agatha Christie continued to write her detective novels on location and many of her best-loved novels were informed by direct observation of life on her travels.

Christie’s inspiration came from the world she knew. She drew on the military gentlemen, lords and ladies, spinsters, widows and doctors of her family’s circle of friends. A natural observer, her descriptions of village politics, local rivalries and family jealousies are often painfully accurate. Her grandson, Mathew Prichard, has described her as “a person who listened more than she talked, who saw more than she was seen.”

Christie's first novel “The Mysterious Affair at Styles” was the first to feature her eccentric Belgian detective Hercule Poirot. One of the most famous fictional creations of all time Poirot's 'little grey cells' triumphed over some of the most devious criminal minds ever created in crime fiction. Role of Poirot was executed by many actors (David SUCHET; Peter USTINOV; Albert FINNEY; Austin TREVOR). Austin Trevor was the first actor to portray Poirot on screen. In my opinion, David Suchet has given the most Faithful portrayal of Poirot.

Christie’s last published novel “Sleeping Murder” featured her other world-famous sleuth, the shrewdly inquisitive Miss Jane Marple of St. Mary Mead. The first Miss Marple feature film was released in 1962. For many the quiet and shrewd actress was the embodiment of Miss Marple (Angela Lansbury; Margaret Rutherford; Joan Hickson). Margaret Rutherford Murder was the first actor to portray Miss Marple on screen. In my opinion, Hickson has given the most Faithful portrayal of Miss Marple.

Christie first wrote for the radio in 1930. The radio was one of Christie's early loves and a medium she felt very comfortable writing for - but not performing in!

Novels by Agatha Christie forced to think, analyze, understand the characters of the people and to exercise powers of observation. That’s why, only Boris Akunin (Russian writer) is the unique follower of Agatha Christie.

Sandomirsky Artem,

Course II, NWAPA, Vyborg

Science consultant - Vassel E.V.

Winston Churchill and his role in the history of England

A descendant of the famous ссылка скрыта, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill was one of the remarkable representatives of politicians in the world. His carrier started in 1902 and since that time all he did and said attracted the attention of the whole nation.

In 1911 Churchill was transferred to the office of the ссылка скрыта, a post he held into ссылка скрыта. He gave impetus to several reform efforts including development of ссылка скрыта (he undertook flying lessons himself), the construction of new and larger warships, the development of tanks, and the switch from coal to oil in the ссылка скрыта.

In July 1917 Churchill was appointed ссылка скрыта and in January 1919 ссылка скрыта and ссылка скрыта. He was the main architect of the ссылка скрыта, a principle that allows the Treasury to dominate and control strategic, foreign and financial policies under the assumption that "there would be no great European war for the next five or ten years".

A major preoccupation of his tenure in the ссылка скрыта was the Allied intervention in the ссылка скрыта. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that ссылка скрыта must be "strangled in its cradle". He secured from a divided and loosely organized Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation—and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920 after the last ссылка скрыта had been withdrawn Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded ссылка скрыта. He became ссылка скрыта in 1921 and was a signatory of the ссылка скрыта of 1921 which established the ссылка скрыта. Churchill was involved in the lengthy negotiations of the treaty and to protect British maritime interests he engineered part of the ссылка скрыта agreement to include three ссылка скрыта—Queenstown (ссылка скрыта), ссылка скрыта and ссылка скрыта—which could be used as Atlantic bases by ссылка скрыта. Under the terms of the ссылка скрыта the bases were returned to the ссылка скрыта "ссылка скрыта" in 1938.

Churchill was appointed ссылка скрыта in 1924 under ссылка скрыта and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the ссылка скрыта which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the ссылка скрыта.

Churchill had been among the first to recognize the growing threat of Hitler long before the outset of the Second World War and his warnings had gone largely unheeded.

Although Churchill's role in World War II had generated him much support from the British population he was defeated in the ссылка скрыта.

He died at his home nine days later at age 90 on the morning of Sunday 24 January 1965 coincidentally 70 years to the day after his father's death.

Churchill always — till the last years of life — was in the fashion and cared of opinion of associates supported his own image which has developed in mass consciousness. The prime minister liked to carry a club suit, a uniform of commander of military-air forces, sea blazers. The cigar which has been often not lighted almost invariably stuck out of a mouth corner.

Churchill never underlined the intellectual superiority over the interlocutor, avoided any arrogance. He aspired to seize mood dominating in the country more likely and to follow it; from this ability notorious self-confidence of the British leader was born.

Twice the prime minister, the Nobel winner in the literature, the designer, the painter, the author of fifty eight historical compositions, the unsurpassed orator, Churchill shows to us a diligence and cheerfulness example. The person admiring on the past, appreciating tradition, it not only has not been closed for new ideas, but constantly created itself. Churchill was the founder of the tank, one of the first has estimated the importance of aircraft, deeply was interested in rockets already in 1930th, has ordered to scatter an aluminum foil to "blind" a radar of Germans, has put forward idea of the pipeline near Atlantic ocean, has invented the navigating device for pilots and has suggested to create artificial harbors at disembarkation of allies in Normandy.

Churchill served England with mind with quivering passion and — at the same time — with cold calculation. Only in that way he could achieve respect of fellow citizens and the whole mankind. Its bright life was an organic realization of political traditions of England.

For Englishmen Winston Churchill for ever remains the person who in the embodied severe autumn of 1940 national conviction that declared « Britt will never be the slave». When the small green island faced to brown Europe the prime minister Churchill has said: «We will battle by the seas and oceans, we will battle to growing confidence and growing force of air, we will protect our island we will battle on beaches, we will battle on disembarkation places, we will battle in fields, in streets, we will battle on hills, we never will surrender».

Feldmanis Victoria,

Course II, NWAPA, Vyborg.

Science consultant - Vassel E.V.

Education in Great Britain

In the history of English education the most important piece of legislation of the twentieth century was the Education Act of 1944, also known as the "Butler Act". It replaced all previous legislation. It became increasingly clear that education was of vital importance to the nation and to the individual and the legislation passed necessarily reflected this conviction. It also reflected political tendencies as well as the social and economic needs of the nation.

Education of the individual is the foundation of the education of the community. The individual's needs are not merely academic and neither are those of the community. This comes out quite clearly in the 1944 Education Act:
"it shall be the duty of the local education authority for every area, so far as their powers extend, to continue towards the spiritual, mental and physical developments of the community" (1944 Education Act Part II, 7).

If education is to foster the "spiritual, mental and physical" well-being of the community it has to be focused on the "spiritual, mental and physical" well-being of each individual member of that community; education has to be child-centered. Education not only has to do with communicating academic information but also involves the whole of the person: academic ability, spiritual, physical and vocational needs. It is clearly noticeable in the history of education in England that religion and spiritual values are seen to be of paramount importance. Once again the 1944 Education Act stresses this by stating how the day at school should begin: "the school day in every county school and in every voluntary school shall begin with collective worship on the part of all pupils in attendance".

In Great Britain 30.000 comprehensive schools and 2300 - private (individual), named "independent sector" work. The majority of comprehensive schools (from 60 up to 90%) - mixed. The private schools work as mixed basically for the younger schoolboys, the training in the senior classes is conducted separately. In comprehensive schools children study, as a rule, complete day, the educational week makes 5 days. In England and Wales the school year proceeds since September till July. In Scotland - from middle of August till the end of June, in Northern Ireland - since September till July. The academic year is divided (shared) into three terms for 13 weeks everyone.

Between the ages of 5 and 11 children attend the primary school and then progress to secondary school level, which normally means entry into a Comprehensive School. The tripartite system of secondary education has practically disappeared and has been replaced by the Comprehensive School.

Among the Comprehensive Schools are also the Voluntary denominational schools. Particularly strong are the Roman Catholic Comprehensive Schools.

After four years of secondary school, at about the age of 16, pupils sit the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examination. This is taken in a wide range of subjects according to the pupils' ability. Usually four to eight or even as many as ten subjects. The exams are marked by an independent body.

Two years later the students sit another examination called the General Certificate of Education (GCE) (A Level) again based on a selection of subjects chosen by each candidate (usually three to five and including a science subject and an arts subject). Access to universities is based on the number of examinations taken and the grades achieved. The exact requirements are fixed by the individual universities and vary according to the type of degree course you want to follow.

In the UK, two different main types of higher education exist. On the one hand, there are universities, who traditionally teach and award their own degrees. Universities have full rights to award taught and research degrees. In the UK, universities are mostly grouped by their age or quality.

On the other hand, there are colleges, which can be split to two groups. University Colleges, who historically prepared for degrees from other institutions, but have gained more and more rights like the possibility to award own taught degrees. There are still university colleges, who do not award their own degrees but the degrees from external institutions. 1992 and 2005, many former university colleges became full universities. Nowadays, all university colleges have the right to award own taught degrees, but this right is not used in general as some institutions remain at the tradition to let their degrees be awarded by other institutions.
There are also Colleges of Higher Education, who do not grant own degrees and get validated by universities. University colleges as well as Colleges of Higher Education can be called University college, so the name is not an indication which type an institution is.

In the UK the universities help students to plan their careers. At the end of their school time universities offer career days to which several schools are invited and the courses are presented to the students including some introductory courses. During the studies at university the university offers also career days for students at which companies present themselves. Trainee programs are presented to students and students can also apply for placements or job offers.

Khohlova Julia,

Course 2, NWAPA, Vyborg.

Science consultant - Vassel E.V.

British Mass Media

In every modern country, regardless of the form of the government, the press, radio and television are political weapons of tremendous power, and few things are as indicative of the nature of a government as the way in which that power is exercised.

Although the press in this or that country is legally free, the danger lies in the fact that the majority of people are not aware of the ownership. The growth of radio and particularly of television is as important in providing news as the press. They provide powerful means of capturing public

In a democratic country like Great Britain the press, ideally, has three political functions: information, discussion and representation. It is supposed to give the voter reliable and complete information to base his judgement. It should let him know the arguments for and against any policy, and it should reflect and give voice to the desires of the people as a whole.

All the newspapers whether daily or Sunday, totalling about twenty, can be divided into two groups: quality papers and popular papers. Quality papers include “The Times’, “The Guardian”, “The Daily Telegraph”, “The Financial Times”, “The Observer”, “The Sunday Times” and “The Sunday Telegraph”. Very thoroughly they report national and international news.

The popular newspapers tend to make news sensational. These papers concentrate on more emotive reporting of stories often featuring the Royal Family, film and pop stars, and sport.

Good English writing is often to be found in the weekly political and literary journals, all based in London, all with nationwide circulations in the tens of thousands.

Glossy weekly or monthly illustrated magazines cater either for women or for any of a thousand special interests. Almost all are based in London, with national circulations, and the women’s magazines sell millions of copies.

The best-known among the British national weekly newspapers are as follows: “The Times” (1785) is called the paper of the Establishment.

“The Guardian” (until 1959-“The Manchester Guardian”) has become a truly national paper rather than one specially connected with Manchester.

Local morning papers have suffered from the universal penetration of London-based national press.

Wales has one daily morning newspaper, the “Western Mail”, published in Cardiff, with a circulation of 76,200 throughout Wales.

Scotland has six morning, six evening and four Sunday newspapers. Local weekly newspapers number 115.

Northern Ireland has two morning newspapers, one evening and three Sunday papers, all published in Belfast with circulations ranging from 20,000 to 170, 567.

Advertising in all non-broadcast media such as newspapers, magazines, posters (and also direct mail, sales promotions, cinema, and management of lists and databases) is regulated by the Advertising Standards Authority, an independent body funded by a levy on display advertising expenditure.

British broadcasting has traditionally been based on the principle that it is a public service accountable to the people through Parliament.

The general nature of the four TV channels functioning in 1991 seems likely to continue, with BBC1 and ITV producing a broadly similar mixture of programmes in competition with each other. ITV has a complex structure. Its main news is run by one company, Independent Television News, its early morning TV – a.m. by another.

The BBC has five national radio channels for listeners in the United Kingdom. Radio (channel) 1 provides mainly a programme of rock and pop music.

Besides these domestic programmes, the BBC broadcasts in England and in over 40 other languages to every part of the world. It is the World Service of the BBC. Its broadcasts are intended to provide a link of culture, information and entertainment between the peoples of the United Kingdom and those in other parts of the world.

Television viewing is Britain's most popular leisure pastime: 95 per cent of households have a colour television set and 68 per cent have a video recorder.

The Government is not responsible for programming content or the day-to-day conduct of the business of broadcasting. Broadcasters are free to air programs with the only limitation on their independence being the requirement that they not offend good taste.

The British are one of the biggest newspaper-reading nations in the world. The press in Britain is free to comment on the matters of public interest, subject to law (including that of libel). By the open discussions of all types of goings on, it is obvious that there is no state control or censorship of the press, which caters to a variety of political views, interests and levels of education.

Kudryashova Marina,

Course I, NWAPA, Vyborg.

Science consultant - Zudina T.V.

London Underground

Railway construction in the United Kingdom began in the early 19th century. By 1854 six separate railway terminals had been built just outside the centre of London: London Bridge, Euston, Paddington, King's Cross, Bishops gate and Waterloo.

In 1854 an Act of Parliament was passed approving the construction of an underground railway between Paddington Station and Farringdon Street via King's Cross which was to be called the Metropolitan Railway. The Great Western Railway (GWR) gave financial backing to the project when it was agreed that a junction would be built linking the underground railway with their mainline terminus at Paddington. GWR also agreed to design special trains for the new subterranean railway. The Metropolitan Railway opened on 10 January 1863.

Following advances in the use of tunneling shields, electric traction and deep-level tunnel designs, later railways were built even further underground.

In the early 20th century the presence of six independent operators running different Underground lines caused passengers substantial inconvenience; in many places passengers had to walk some distance above ground to change between lines. The costs associated with running such a system were also heavy, and as a result many companies looked to financiers who could give them the money they needed to expand into the lucrative suburbs as well as electrify the earlier steam operated lines.

In early 1908, in an effort to increase passenger numbers, the underground railway operators agreed to promote their services jointly as "the Underground", publishing new adverts and creating a free publicity map of the network for the purpose.

The Metropolitan also sought to electrify its lines. The District and the Metropolitan had agreed to use the low voltage DC system for the Inner Circle, comprising two electric rails to power the trains, back in 1901. At the start of 1905 electric trains began to work the Uxbridge branch and from 1 November 1906 electric locomotives took trains as far as Wembley Park where steam trains took over. This changeover point was moved to Harrow on 19 July 1908. The Hammersmith & City branch had also been upgraded to electric working on 5 November 1906. The electrification of the ELR (East London Railway) followed on 31 March 1913, the same year as the opening of its extension to White chapel and Shore ditch. Following the Grouping Act of 1921, which merged all the cash strapped main line railways into four companies (thus obliterating the original consortium that had built the ELR), the Metropolitan agreed to run passenger services on the line. The London Underground's 11 lines are the Bakerloo line, Central line, Circle line, District line, Hammersmith & City line, Jubilee line, Metropolitan line, Northern line, Piccadilly line, Victoria line, and Waterloo & City line. The Underground uses TfL's Travelcard zones to calculate fares. Greater London is divided into 6 zones.

There are staffed ticket offices, some open for limited periods only, and ticket machines usable at any time. Some machines that sell a limited range of tickets accept coins only, other touch-screen machines accept coins and banknotes, and usually give change. These machines also accept major credit and debit cards: some newer machines accept cards only. In addition to automatic and staffed ticket gates, the Underground is patrolled by both uniformed and plain-clothes ticket inspectors with hand-held Oyster-card readers. Passengers travelling without a ticket valid for their entire journey are required to pay a penalty fare of £50 (or £25 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889, under which they are subject to a fine of up to £1,000, or three months' imprisonment. Most stations on the surface have at least a short flight of stairs to gain access from street level, and the great majority of below-ground stations require use of stairs or some of the system's 410 escalators. The escalators in Underground stations include some of the longest in Europe, and all are custom-built. The longest escalator is at Angel station, 60 m (197 ft) long, with a vertical rise of 27.5 m (90 ft). They run 20 hours a day, 364 days a year, with 95% of them operational at any one time, and can cope with 13,000 passengers per hour.

The origins of the roundel, in earlier years known as the 'bulls-eye' or 'target', are obscure. While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the 19th-century symbol of the London General Omnibus Company — a wheel with a bar across the centre bearing the word The red circle with blue name bar was quickly adopted, with the word "UNDERGROUND" across the bar, as an early corporate identity. The logo was modified by Edward Johnston in 1919.

Zhumadilova Dinara,

Course I, NWAPA, Vyborg.

Science consultant - Vassel E.V.

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