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101. Arts
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- A truly national realistic tradition began with the appearance of the "Wanderers". Kramskoy organized a protest against prescribed mythological themes in the competition for the Great Gold Medal that gave a six-year scholarship to study abroad. This action marked a break with the Academy's outdated form of Neoclassicism patterned on Western models which lost popularity with the educated public but continued to be taught and favoured at the official level. After the break with the Academy Kramskoy sustained a group of thirteen independent painters both organizationally and intellectually in keeping with the spirit of the reform and renovation that swept Russia during the 1860s after the emancipation of the serfs. He set up a communal workshop (artel), the "Wanderers". At the same time Kramskoy defined ideological underpinnings of the new art: a combination of civic, moral and national goals, which infused Russian realism with its crystal-clear ideal of service. He asserted that as painters in Russia were not free they had to take the most urgent problems of the day as the subjects of their works of art. The most prominent Russian artists of the 1870s and '80s, including Ivan Kramskoy, Il'ya Repin, Vassily Surikov, Vassily Perov, and Vassily Vereshchagin, belonged to this group. The "Wanderers" attached much importance to the moral and literary aspects of art than to aesthetics. Their artistic creed was realism, national feeling, and social consciousness. The influence of the "Wanderers" spread throughout Russia. This group was dominant for nearly 30 years.
102. Asteroids
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Scientists divide asteroids into two groups, based on how they appear in infrared images: light and dark. The lightest-looking asteroids are rocky bodies with lots of iron and nickel, and they resemble lunar rocks. The darkest asteroids have high quantities of hydrated minerals and carbon. In the early days of the solar system (some 4.6 billion years ago) asteroids had metallic cores, middle regions of stone and iron, and surfaces of stone. Over time, many of them collided with others and broke apart. The fragments, which became many of today's asteroids, are therefore classified as irons, stony-irons or stony.
103. Asuka and Nara Art
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During the Asuka and Nara periods, so named because the seat of Japanese government was located in the Asuka Valley from 552 to 710 and in the city of Nara until 784, the first significant invasion by Asian continental culture took place in Japan. The transmission of Buddhism provided the initial impetus for contacts between Korea, China, and Japan, and the Japanese recognized facets of Chinese culture that could profitably be incorporated into their own: a system for converting ideas and sounds into writing; historiography; complex theories of government, such as an effective bureaucracy; and, most important for the arts, advanced technology, new building techniques, more advanced methods of casting in bronze, and new techniques and mediums for painting.
104. At the Doctors
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He wrote a prescription for a gargle and cough medicine. Also he gave me some sulfa pills, a slip for x-ray and blood examination. He prescribed cups and mustard plasters. The prescription, which the doctor left, was made up at the chemist's. I followed all the doctor's instructions and very soon I felt much better. In 10 days I fully recovered and resumed my studies.
105. At the doctor's
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Не самая приятная тема для обсуждения, но, как показала недавняя эпидемия гриппа, весьма жизненная. Тем более, что и лето не за горами, а летом в путешествии возможны неожиданности. Мы надеемся, что Вам не понадобится объясняться с врачом по-английски, но, как говорится, "Hope for the best but be ready for the worst". So let's get ready!
106. At the Theatre
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We left our coats in the cloak-room and bought a program from the usher to see what the cast was. I remember we were glad to see that Ulanova was dancing the main part. When we came into the hall the orchestra were tuning in their instruments. We found our seats which were in the stalls and went exploring the theatre. My mother showed me the boxes, the pit, the dress-circle, the tiers and balconies. At 12 sharp the lights went down. The conductor appeared and the overture began. After the overture the curtain went up. I was in raptures at what I saw on the stage. I have never seen anything more wonderful. The scenery and the dancing were superb. The ballet seemed to me a fairy-tale. When the last curtain fell, the house burst out into applause. I applauded so much, that my hands ached. The cries of encore sounded all over the theatre. The dancers got many curtain calls and were presented with many flowers. The performance was a great success with the public. It was one of my brightest memories.
107. Atomic Bomb
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Atomic bombs have been designed by students, but their actual construction is a complex industrial process. Practical fissionable nuclei for atomic bombs are the isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239, which are capable of undergoing chain reaction . If the mass of the fissionable material exceeds the critical mass (a few pounds), the chain reaction multiplies rapidly into an uncontrollable release of energy. An atomic bomb is detonated by bringing together very rapidly (e.g., by means of a chemical explosive) two subcritical masses of fissionable material, the combined mass exceeding the critical mass. An atomic bomb explosion produces, in addition to the shock wave accompanying any explosion, intense neutron and gamma radiation, both of which are very damaging to living tissue. The neighborhood of the explosion becomes contaminated with radioactive fission products. Some radioactive products are borne into the upper atmosphere as dust or gas and may subsequently be deposited partially decayed as radioactive fallout far from the site of the explosion.
108. Aus der Geschichte Berlins
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Berlin entstand Anfang des 14. Jahrhunderts aus zwei Fischerdrfern an der Spree, aus Berlin und Clln. Bis zum 17. Jahrhundert aber spielte Berlin keine groe Rolle. Die Stadt nahm unter Friedrich Wilhelm I., dem Groen Kurfrsten, einen krftigen Aufschwung. Die Stadt wurde mit einer Mauer umgeben. Die Mauer hatte 15 Tore. Eine schnelle industrielle Entwicklung der Stadt begann aber erst seit Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts.
109. Aus Lenins Leben
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1893 kam Lenin nach Petersburg, dem politischen Zentrum Rulands, wo er zum Fhrer der Petersburger Marxisten wurde. Am 25. April 1895 fuhr er als Vertreter der Petersburger Sozialdemokraten in die Schweiz, wo er die Gelegenheit hatte, Plechanow und andere russische Marxisten kennenzulernen. Durch die Vereinigung aller marxistischen Zirkel und durch die Schaffung der ersten revolutionren marxistischen Zeitung “Iskra” bereitete Lenin die Bildung einer selbstndigen proletarischen politischen Partei vor.
110. Australia
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The 18 passengers and 36 crew on the iron-hulled clipper Loch Ard had a party on the night of March 31, 1878, to celebrate their arrival in Melbourne the next day after a three month voyage from England. But Captain Gibb stayed on deck all night, worried by the thick mist that obscured the horizon and Cape Otway light. At 4am the mist lifted and the lookout cried: "Breakers ahead." Despite desperate attempts to turn the ship away -- and then to hold it with its anchors -- it struck rocks. water flooded in, the masts flailed against the high cliff face before crashing down and waves swept across the decks, hampering attempts to get the lifeboats into the water. Only two survived -- ship's apprentice Tom Pearce and Eva Carmichael, both aged 18. Eva's parents and five siblings were lost. Tom drifted into the gorge where he saw passenger Eva clinging to a mast -- he swam out, pulled her into a cave and found some brandy in the wreckage to revive her. He climbed out of the gorge and came upon two stockmen, and a rescue party was organised. But only four bodies -- including Eva's mother and sister, were able to be recovered from the treacherous seas and most of the ship's valuable cargo was lost or looted. Tom Pearce became a national hero for his rescue of Eva, who soon returned to Ireland.
111. Baburen, Dirck van
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The city of Utrecht was the center of Catholic life in the otherwise Protestant Dutch republic, and Baburen was one of a group of Utrecht painters who, unlike most of their Dutch contemporaries, had studied in Catholic Rome. Influenced by the Italian master Caravaggio, these artists specialized in painting large, half-length figures, brought close to the picture surface and solidly modeled in strongly contrasting light and shadow. In this spirited image of mercenary love, an amorous client bargains with a procuress (one who solicits clients for a prostitute) for the favors of a voluptuous young woman. The figures' colorful costumes suggest street entertainers or characters in a play. A lute, symbol of love, occupies the center of the composition and the gestures of the hands that surround it tell the painting's story.
112. Banking system
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Most countries have a central bank, which is responsible for the operation of the banking system. The central bank in the UK is the Bank of England, which was taken into public ownership in 1946. It has many responsibilities, which are summarized below and discussed in more detail later in this charpter.
1. It is the governments bank. It handles the income and expenditure of Exchequer and other government departments.
2. The clearing banks maintain accounts at the Bank of England. The final cash settlements within the banking the banking system and between the banking system and the Bank of England take place through these accounts. The Bank is a banker for about 100 overseas central banks and international monetary institutions.
3. It manages the national debt. This is a major responsibility which involves making repayments on government securities when they mature, undertaking new issues of long-term securities, making regular payments on interest to holders of existing government securities, and handling the weekly issues of Treasury bills. The management of the national debt, as we shall see later, has important effects on the supply of money and the rate of interest.
4. It is the lender of last resort. The Bank of England stands ready to come to the assistance of the banking system in times when it is threatened by a shortage of cash.
5. It acts as the governments agent in the foreign exchange market, in which it can intervene to influence the value of sterling against other currencies.
6. It has the responsibility for carrying out the governments monetary policy.
7. It has legal powers to supervise the operations of other banks. All banks are expected to supply the Bank of England with information about their business, and they have to respond to directives given to them by the bank.
113. Baroque
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In the 17th century, Rome was the artistic capital of Europe, and the baroque style soon spread outwards from it, undergoing modification in each of the countries to which it migrated, as it encountered different tastes and outlooks and merged with local traditions. In some areas it became more extravagant (notably in the fervent religious atmosphere of Spain and Latin America) and in others it was toned down to suit more conservative tastes. In Catholic Flanders it had one of its finest flowerings in the work of Rubens, but in neighbouring Holland, a predominantly Protestant country, the Baroque made comparatively slight inroads; nor did it ever take firm root in England. In France, the Baroque found its greatest expression in the service of the monarchy rather than the church. Louis XIV realized the importance of the arts as a propaganda medium in promoting the idea of his regal glory, and his palace at Versailles--with its grandiose combination of architecture, sculpture, painting, decoration, and (not least) the art of the gardener--represents one of the supreme examples of the Baroque fusion of the arts to create an overwhelmingly impressive whole. (The German term Gesamtkunstwerk--`total work of art'--has been applied to this ideal.) In France, as in other countries, the Baroque style merged imperceptibly with the Rococo style that followed it.
114. Bassano (family da Ponte)
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He also had the ability to devise new ideas for compositions that possessed great force of expression. Trained in his father's studio, Jacopo broke away from the local popular and devotional tradition by studying prints by Raphael and developments in Mannerism. His early Mannerist works used elongated figures and brilliant colors. During the 1540s his painting was experimental, the anatomy of his characters was forced and their postures unnatural. This phase proved crucial in the development of his own very personal style which was capable of assimilating new ideas and translating them into an art with enormous communicative power. Jacopo Bassano's popular realism was underpinned by his exceptional use of light and characterized by the lifelike quality of the people and details, especially the animals, in his pictures. Local taste required that art illustrate reality, and Jacopo drew inspiration from the simple human scenes, farm life, and changing aspects of nature he observed in his hometown. To Mannerism's energy, extreme movement, and tightly compressed space, he added realism and earthiness. A humble and subtle observer, his sitters may seem unaware of his presence. Increasingly, he used religious and philosophical subjects as pretexts for painting genre scenes and landscapes.
115. Bazarov: a lunatic or visionary?
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The young Kirsanov, barely twenty-three years of age, apparently had not yet formed a sound system of morals and values and was drawn into discipleship of nihilism primarily by the power of Bazarovs charisma and the “freshness” of the nihilists ideas, rather than their sensibility. Arkady is a person lacking character and devoid of an independent intellectual backbone. He constantly needs someones support and Bazarov just happens to be vivid enough a personality to attract such a simple life form as Arkady. Over the course of their friendship, Arkady breathes every word spoken by his sensei, seldom displaying signs of independent thought. He delightfully rejects authority, but his nihilistic fervor is not sincere; Arkady semi-consciously follows his friend, who softly and ambiguously ridicules him as a phony, for Bazarov knows that Arkadys subscription to nihilism is very strongly contradicted by his demeanor, and his frequent displays of feelings and emotions. But why does Bazarov not renounce this friendship? Why does he tolerate the company of Arkady, this dim hypocrite, and why does he agree to travel to Maryino? Well, there was no reason not to. As devoted to work and science as Bazarov was, he saw no harm in spending a little time in the mellow and pleasant country estate of his young friends parent. Moreover, Bazarov yet again pursues a selfish motive by agreeing to travel to Maryino: he dreads boredom, which would probably consume him at his true destination, his own parents homestead.
116. Bellini, Giovanni
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In his early pictures, Bellini worked with tempera, combining a severe and rigid style with a depth of religious feeling and gentle humanity. From the beginning he was a painter of natural light. In his earliest pictures the sky is often reflected behind human figures in streaks of water that make horizontal lines in narrow strips of landscape. The Agony in the Garden was the first of a series of Venetian landscape scenes that continued to develop for the next century. Four triptychs (a triptych is a set of three panels used as an altarpiece) in the Venice Accademia and two Pietas, both in Milan, are all from this early period. Bellini's St. Vincent Ferrer altarpiece, which is still in the church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo in Venice, was painted in the mid-1470s.
117. Big Ben England
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This bell came originally from the old Palace of Westminster, it was given to the Dean of St. Paul's by William III. Before returning to Westminster to hang in its present home, it was refashioned in Whitechapel in 1858. The BBC first broadcast the chimes on the 31st December 1923 - there is a microphone in the turret connected to Broadcasting House.
118. Blake, William
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"I do not behold the outward creation... it is a hindrance and not action." Thus William Blake--painter, engraver, and poet--explained why his work was filled with religious visions rather than with subjects from everyday life. Few people in his time realized that Blake expressed these visions with a talent that approached genius. He lived in near poverty and died unrecognized. Today, however, Blake is acclaimed one of England's great figures of art and literature and one of the most inspired and original painters of his time.
119. Books
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And finishing my story about books I want to tell you about my favourite Belorussian writer. Every Belarussian man has his favourite Belarusian writer. As for me, he is Janka Kupala. He was born in the village Vyazynka. His father was a poor peasant, thats why his family always needed money. From his childhood Janla was fond of folk music, traditions and songs. Later it reflects on his creative works. He wrote such popular folk poems as “Dream near the Hill”, “She and I”, “The Grave of a Lion”. In the last poem he wrote about strong and brave peasant, called Masheka. He loved one woman. But after a rich man married her, he settled in the forest and began to rob rich men. Once when he robbed a cart he saw a beautiful woman, who looked like his love. She influenced on Masheka, and he didnt kill her. But some days later she killed Masheka and came back home. After that the place where it happened was called The Grave of the Lion or Mogilev. Kupala represents one of the peaks of Belarussian poetry. Not only owing to his genius, but to the fact that he was always with the people, most fully expressed the Spirit, the character and hopes of his people; belonged to the people, and wrote works which all appealed to the people.
120. Books and libraries
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I usually take books from school library. The library is helpful when I have to make a report, when I need information on some subjects. The choice of books in our school library is very good. There are many short stories and novels, textbooks and reference books, dictionaries and encyclopedias there. All books are arranged in alphabetical order. I pay attention to the cover of the book, its illustrations, the name of the author, the title of the book and the contents.

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