Информация

681. Effects of deflation
Экономика

If ideology can blind policymakers to introducing necessary reforms then the second lesson from history is that, once entrenched, expectations of deflation may be difficult to reverse. The occasional fall in aggregate prices is unlikely to significantly affect longer-term expectations of inflation. This is especially true if the monetary authority is independent from political control, and if the central bank is required to meet some kind of inflation objective. Indeed, many analysts have repeatedly suggested the need to introduce an inflation target for Japan. While the Japanese have responded by stating that inflation targeting alone is incapable of helping the economy escape from deflation, the Bank of Japan's stubborn refusal to adopt such a monetary policy strategy signals an unwillingness to commit to a different monetary policy strategy. Hence, expectations are even more unlikely to be influenced by other policies ostensibly meant to reverse the course of Japanese prices. The Federal Reserve, of course, does not have a formal inflation target but has repeatedly stated that its policies are meant to control inflation within a 0-3% band. Whether formal versus informal inflation targets represent substantially different monetary policy strategies continues to be debated, though the growing popularity of this type of monetary policy strategy suggests that it greatly assists in anchoring expectations of inflation.
682. Employment Relations of Bangladesh
География
683. England in the Middle Ages
История

Middle Ages encompass one of the most exciting and turbulent times in English History. The Medieval people of the Middle Ages were warlike, they have even been described as barbaric. The Crusades exposed the Europeans to a more refined culture. The elegance of the Far East, with its silks, tapestries, precious stones, perfumes, spices, pearls, and ivory prompted a change in culture with a new and unprecedented interest in beautiful objects and elegant manners. But meanwhile the battles for new territory and power raged on in Middle Ages History. The History of the Middle Ages covers the major historical events which occurred during the period from 1066 - 1485. The History of the Middle Ages starts in England with the Battle of Hastings in 1066 which ended the period classified as the Dark Ages. The events in Middle Ages History continue down the timeline until 1485 which ends the War of the Roses, the start of the Tudor dynastyand the emergence of the Renaissance.
684. English Course Work on Newspaper Reading
Разное

3. Summary ........................................................................................................ p. 4-5
685. English painting
Разное

William Joseph Turner (1774 - 1851) was the greatest English romantic, landscape and marine painter. He was a son of a fashionable barber, started drawing and painting at his early age. His father used to sell the boys drawings to his customers and in such a way he earned money for the boys learning of art. At 14 he entered the Royal Academy School. His water-colors were exhibited at the Royal Academy when he was only 15. At 18 he started his own studio and received a commission to make drawings for magazines. For some years he tramped over Wales and Western England. As Turner never married, he devoted his life to art. Visitors were rarely admitted to his house and no one was aloud to see him at work. He loved his paintings as a man loves his children. At the age of 27 he was elected as a Royal Academician. From that time his paintings became at great demand and brought good money. The last years of his life he spent in a little cottage at Chelsea.
686. English speaking countries
Иностранные языки

Canadians, of whom there are more tnan 30 million, become accustomed to the disproportional size of the country by the time they have studied its geography at school. Newcomers to Canada if they know nothing else about it know that it is capacious. But most cannot help but be impressed with even the most basik statistics on our planet`s second biggest nation, which is exceeded in area only by Russia. Occupying over 9,976,000 square kilometres, Canada extends from the Northwest Territories` Cape Columbia on Ellesmere Island a relative hop and skip from the North Pole to Pelee Island in Ontario`s portion of Lake Erie and with the same latitude as central Spain. Canada`s neighbour across the Arctic Ocean is Russia. That is a north-south distance of 2,850 miles. The east to west span is 5,780 miles from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, to Mount St. Elias, the Yukon Territory six distinct time zones. Canada`s border with the United States is one of the longest: it extends 8,892 km and is broken by scores of entry-exit points between the two nations. It is near this frontier that some 85 per cent of the Canada`s populace is clustered.
687. English topics
Разное
688. Entertainment outside the home: Pubs and clubs Leisure and sports
Разное

Most pubs favour the 'traditional' image a roaring log fire, old oak beams supporting a low ceiling, and brass ornaments on the walls. At Donaghadee, Northern Ireland, one of the authors of this book had an opportunity to see a brass plaque on the wall inside 'Grace Neill's Bar. The plaque contained the names of dignitaries (for instance, Jonathan Swift), who stayed in this seaside resort's famous bar. Among them was the name of Peter the Great, who supposedly had visited the place in 1698 when he was in Britain studying shipbuilding. Another legend of Peter I is associated with another Irish town, Portpatrick. It is said he stayed there in 'The Blair Arms' and the room he occupied is still called the Emperor's Room. These touching legends are cherished wholeheartedly both by the pub owners and the inhabitants of the two corresponding towns. Despite the fact, that Peter the Great might have never crossed the Irish Sea for a mere pint of bitter. For there was no large-scale shipbuilding in Ireland that time.
689. Environmental impacts of renewable energy technologies
Экология

Today the situation in fuel and industrial complexes round the world is disastrous. Current energy systems depend heavily upon fossil and nuclear fuels. What this would mean is that we would run out of mineral resources if we continue consuming non-renewables at the present rate, and this moment is not far off. According to some estimates, within the next 200 years most people, for instance, seize using their cars for lack of petrol (unless some alternatives are used). Moreover, both fossil and nuclear fuels produce a great amount of polluting substances when burnt. We are slowly but steadily destroying our planet, digging it from inside and releasing the wastes into the atmosphere, water and soil. We have to seize vandalizing the Earth and seek some other ways to address the needs of the society some other way. Thats why renewable sources are so important for the society. In fact, today we have a simple choice either to turn to nature or to destroy ourselves. I have all reasons to reckon that most of people would like the first idea much more, and this is why Im going to inquire into the topic and look through some ways of providing a sustainable future for next generations.
690. Environmentalism as a social movement
Экология

Historically, Tort Law has been of limited efficacy for confronting environmental problems. According to the World Bank, "tort law, based as it is on the protection of individual rights and the need to prove specific injury, has not been a significant means of preventing environmental degradation." [5] Similarly, in "Law in Environmental Decision-Making" legal scholar Jenny Steele notes that in respect to protection of the environment, "a number of historical studies have assessed the extent of tort's impact in this respect, to generally critical effect." [6] In the environmental law textbook, "Environmental Protection", Sue Elworth and Jane Holder argue that the most significant limitation of common law, including tort law "was, and continues to be that the protection of private property is the rationale of private law and its motivation...Environmental protection may be effected through the protection of property rights. But private law is said to act only to protect the individualized self-interested claim, which considerably constrains legal action. The main doubt about the ability of private law to provide an appropriate means of protecting the environment is that environmental problems demand collective action, there is therefore some resistance to the idea that individual rights might contribute to collective progress towards environmental protection." [7] Class action, however, is every bit as capable of direct tort-based restitution as individual legal action.
691. Epistemology and methodology: main trends and ends. (Эпистемология и Методология)
Разное

An example of each of these types may help to make them clear. (1) When Galileo was investigating the law of the velocity of falling bodies he eventually formed the hypothesis that a body starting from rest falls with a uniform acceleration, and that its velocity varies with the time of its fall. But he could not devise any method for the direct verification of this hypothesis. By mathematical deduction, however, he arrived at the conclusion that a body falling according to his hypothetical law would fall through a distance proportionate to the time of its fall. This consequence could be tested by comparing the distances and the time of falling bodies, which thus served as an indirect verification of his hypothesis. (2) By inductions from numerous astronomical observations made by Tycho Brahe and himself, Kepler discovered the three familiar laws called by his name, namely, (a) that the planets move in elliptic orbits which have the sun for one of their foci; (6) that the velocity of a planet is such that the radius vector (i.e., an imaginary line joining the moving planet to the sun) sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time; and (c) that the squares of the periodic times of any two planets (that is, the times which they take to complete their revolutions round the sun) are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. These three laws appeared to be quite independent of each other. But Newton systematised them all in the more comprehensive induction, or theory, of celestial gravitation. He showed that they could all be deduced from the one law that the planets tend to move towards each other with a force varying directly with the product of their masses, and inversely with the square of the distances between them. (3) H. Spencer, by comparing a number of predominantly industrial States and also, of predominantly military States, ancient and modern, inferred inductively that the former type of State is democratic and gives rise to free institutions, whereas the latter type is undemocratic and tends to oppression. As the sparse evidence hardly permitted of a rigorous application of any of .the inductive methods, Spencer tried to confirm his conclusion by deductive reasoning from the nature of the case in the light of what is known about the human mind. He pointed out that in a type of society, which is predominantly industrial, the trading relations between individuals are the predominant relations, and these train them to humour and consider others. The result is a democratic attitude in all. In a State, which is predominantly military, the relations which are most common among its members are those of authority, on the one part, and of subordination on the other. The result is the reverse of a democratic atmosphere.
692. Epoche der Rationalitаt, der Vernunft und des Empirismus - Aufklаrun (1720 bis 1785)
Иностранные языки

Die Epoche war weites gehend durch den Absolutismus geprägt. Die Zeit der uneingeschränkten Herrschaft der Fürsten und Könige. Im Volk waren Unwissenheit, Aberglaube, Vorurteile und Pessimismus weit verbreitet. Im 18Jh. begannen Teile des Bürgertums die Zustände zu kritisieren. Der absolute Staat stand über einer Gesellschaft, in der jeder in einen bestimmten Stand hineingeboren wurde, den er nicht verlassen konnte. An der Spitze stand der Adel, der Steuerfreiheit und Grundherrschaft besaß. Darunter kam das Bürgertum, Träger und Nutznießer der staatlich gelenkten Wirtschaft hatte aber weder politischen Einfluss wie der Adel, noch seine Privilegien. Die größte Last trugen die Bauern: Steuern für den Staat und Abgaben für den Grundherrn, auf dessen Land sie arbeiteten. Die mit Königen und Fürsten verbündete katholische und protestantische Kirche predigte der ländlichen Bevölkerung Ergebenheit in ihr Schicksal, welches einen tiefen Pessimismus verbreitete. Dieses Verhindern einer fortschrittlichen Entwicklung durch die Provinzialisierung wurde vom Adel und Bürgertum kritisiert. Die neuen Ideen waren: Freiheit statt Absolutismus, Gleichheit statt Stände, wissenschaftliche Erkenntnis statt Vorurteile und Aberglaube und Optimismus bezüglich des Jenseits. Die Menschen sollten über ihre politische, soziale und geistige Unterdrückung „aufgeklärt“ werden. Die Aufklärung startete bei Adligen, reichen und gebildeten Bürgern, ging dann in Lesegesellschaften über. Der literarische Markt wurde zum Regelfall und der Schriftsteller produzierte nur noch für den Verleger.
693. Ernest Hemingway: Tragic Genius
Литература
694. ERP-система как инструмент развития дистрибьюторского бизнеса
Экономика
695. Essay: Lev Tolstoy and England
Разное

Once when Hanna and Tanya were walking across the steppe they met a very strange company: a lean Tatar in ragged clothes was going in front dragging a small cart behind him with a baby inside, there was a ragged all in dust Tatar woman by his side with a dirty shaggy haired girl. The family looked hungry, dirty and sad. The man asked Hanna and Tanya if there was any work for him and his wife. Tanya knew that her father always tried to give work everybody who needed it and she showed the way to the house. Lev Tolstoy hired the man and his wife to work in the fields. The family settled in the open air and sometimes they moved to the shed. Hanna was full of pity for the Tatar children. She explained to the girl that they were always hungry and together with Tanya brought them food from Tolstoys house. First the Tatar girl was afraid of them but then became friendly and did not hide. She was as wild as a little animal. She could not talk or play like a child. The only thing she was interested in was food. She came up to Tanyas and Hannas window and shouted asking for bread. When they gave her some flat cakes she never thanked them but began to eat rapidly. Tanya tried to play with the girl but in vain. Tanya made little gardens on the bottom of their dried pond sticking little branches into the ground, built roads between them and dug up holes and filled them with water as if they were lakes. The little Tatar girl watched her and then began to laugh widely and crushed all Tanyas work. Then she found horrible tarantulas in their holes, picked them and showed to Tanya speaking her native language that Tanya did not understand. The family lived and worked there the whole summer and then went away.
696. Establishment of the Federal judicial system
Разное

The Constitutional Conventions decisions in 1787 about the national governments court system were few but important. The framers agreed that there would be a separate federal judicial power and that to exercise it there would be a Supreme Court and there could be other federal courts. They specified the jurisdiction those courts could exercise, subject to congressional exceptions. They prescribed the appointment procedure for Supreme Court judges, and they sought to protect all federal judges from reprisals for unpopular decisions: Judges compensation could not be reduced, and judges could not be removed from office other than by legislative impeachment and conviction. Putting flesh on this skeleton fell to the First Congress. The Judiciary Act and the Bill of Rights same forces that contended over the writing and ratification of the Constitution in 1787 and 1788 sparred in the First Congress in 1789 over the nations judicial system. Federalists generally supported the Constitution and the policies of President Washingtons administration, and they wanted to establish a lower federal judiciary. Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution or at least wanted significant changes in it and favored at best only a very limited federal judiciary. After the Constitution went into effect in 1789, outright opposition to it diminished quickly. Democratic Republicans, or “Jeffersonians,” emerged as a counter to the Federalists in power. department will be oppressive.” The star chamber of British legal history lingered in some peoples minds, and many more remembered how state courts issued judgments against debtors during the economic turmoil under the Articles of Confederation. Charles Warren identified four main changes that opponents sought in the Constitutions judiciary provisions: guaranteeing civil as well as criminal trial juries, restricting federal appellate jurisdiction to questions of law, eliminating or radically curtailing congressional authority to establish lower federal courts, and eliminating the authorization for federal diversity jurisdiction. Many who had supported the Constitution, however, believed a federal court system was necessary but doubted the need for a bill of rights. To them, the Constitution, in Hamiltons famous phrase, “is itself, in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights.” The Constitution as ratified contained specific limitations on the national government (e. g., Article IIIs provision for criminal jury trials), and in a broader sense, it established an energetic national government, extending over a large republic, that would be capable of protecting people from the oppression of local factions. Courts would also protect rights. As Chief Justice John Jay later told the grand juries of the Eastern Circuit, “nothing but a strong government of laws irresistibly bearing down [upon] arbitrary power and licentiousness can defend [liberty] against those two formidable enemies.” To many Federalists, state courts under the Articles of Confederation had too easily yielded to popular pressures; the Federalists believed that a separate set of federal courts was necessary to achieve “a strong government of laws.”.
697. Ethernet в городских сетях
Компьютеры, программирование

Сервис E-Line представляет собой соединение типа «точка - точка» с фиксированной пропускной способностью между двумя клиентскими интерфейсами (Customer Premises Equipment, СРЕ). В качестве протокола передачи между СРЕ и устройством доступа к сети (Customer Located Equipment, CLE) используется Ethernet. Клиентский интерфейс называется также интерфейсом «пользователь сеть» (User Network Interface, UNI). В простейшем случае сервис предоставляет симметричную в обоих направлениях полосу пропускания без использования на нем параметров качества обслуживания, и его можно сравнить с обычной выделенной линией. Но если потребитель запрашивает дополнительные услуги, то на нем можно обеспечить такие параметры, как CIR, PIR, кроме того, гарантированные задержку, колебание задержки, особенно важную для голосового трафика, и потери производительности при соединении двух UNI, работающих с разными скоростями передачи данных. Поддерживается и мультиплексирование EVC, т. е. к одному физическому порту UNI может подключаться несколько EVC.
698. Euclid of Alexandria
Разное

Not much younger than these [pupils of Plato] is Euclid, who put together the "Elements", arranging in order many of Eudoxus's theorems, perfecting many of Theaetetus's, and also bringing to irrefutable demonstration the things which had been only loosely proved by his predecessors. This man lived in the time of the first Ptolemy; for Archimedes, who followed closely upon the first Ptolemy makes mention of Euclid, and further they say that Ptolemy once asked him if there were a shorted way to study geometry than the Elements, to which he replied that there was no royal road to geometry. He is therefore younger than Plato's circle, but older than Eratosthenes and Archimedes; for these were contemporaries, as Eratosthenes somewhere says. In his aim he was a Platonist, being in sympathy with this philosophy, whence he made the end of the whole "Elements" the construction of the so-called Platonic figures.
699. Euro
Экономика

2000 г.2001 г.2002г.2003г.2010г.Сценарий 1. ЭВС с дополнительной фискальной консолидацией и реформой рынков трудаЧлены ЭВСРеальный ВВП0.20.91,01,12,9Дефлятор ВВП-0,03-0,7-1,1-1,4-1,9Долгосрочная норма процента0,1-0,1-0,3-0,4---Уровень безработицы-0,2-0,4-0,6-0,8-2,0Общий баланс государственного бюджета (в % ВВП)0,40,911,52,10,8Чистые доходы------0,110,2-1,1Расходы-0,4-0,9-1,4-1,9-1,9Общий государственный долг (в % ВВП)-0,4-1,4-2,7-4,5-12,6Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-3,513,822,831,627,9Неевропейские страны члены большой семеркиРеальный ВВП-0,1------0,10,1Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-0,6-16,6-25,5-31,5-31,9Другие индустриальные страныРеальный ВВП-0,10,10,1---0,2Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-1,0-1,9-2,6-3,5-1,7Развивающиеся страныРеальный ВВП---0,10,20,20,3Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)5,14,75,33,45,7Сценарий 2. ЭВС без дополнительной фискальной консолидацией и без реформы рынков трудаЧлены ЭВСРеальный ВВП0,1-0,3-0,6-0,9-2,5Дефлятор ВВП0,10,30,60,92,3Долгосрочная норма процента0,20,30,40,50,5Уровень безработицы0,20,40,70,92,0Общий баланс государственного бюджета (в % ВВП)-0,2-0,5-0,7-0,9-1,3Чистые доходы----0,1-0,2-0,3-0,7Расходы0,20,40,50,60,6Общий государственный долг (в % ВВП)1,00,71,02,39,8Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-1,722,131,738,867,3Неевропейские страны члены большой семеркиРеальный ВВП-0,1------0,10,1Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-2,6-22,6-29,5-33,7-57,5Другие индустриальные страныРеальный ВВП----0,1------0,1Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)-0,8-2,4-3,1-3,6-6,1Развивающиеся страныРеальный ВВП----------0,1-0,2Торговый баланс (в млрд. долл. США)5,12,90,9-1,5-3,7Таким образом… что я могу сказать? Я не человек со сколько-нибудь экономическим образованием. Но, подводя итоги, как мне кажется, большинство высказалось "за", хотя и с большим количеством оговорок. Иначе говоря, перед новой валютой зажегся "зеленый свет". Но это все мои скромные выводы. Хотя… если их размножить и видоизменить, то и получится, наверное, картина всех, кто задумывался по поводу евро на этой стороне океана. А что же Америка? Я не говорю про отдельно взятых специалистов, а в целом?
700. European Monetary Union: Theory, History and Consequences
Юриспруденция, право, государство

%20is%20a%20situation%20where%20several%20countries%20have%20agreed%20to%20share%20a%20single%20currency%20amongst%20themselves.%20The%20European%20Economic%20and%20Monetary%20Union%20(EMU)%20consists%20of%20three%20stages%20coordinating%20economic%20policy%20and%20culminating%20with%20the%20adoption%20of%20the%20euro%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro>,%20the%20EU's%20single%20currency.%20All%20member%20states%20of%20the%20European%20Union%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union>%20are%20expected%20to%20participate%20in%20the%20EMU.%20Sixteen%20member%20states%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurozone>%20of%20the%20European%20Union%20have%20entered%20the%20third%20stage%20and%20have%20adopted%20the%20euro%20as%20their%20currency.%20The%20United%20Kingdom%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom>,%20Denmark%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark>%20and%20Sweden%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden>%20have%20not%20accepted%20the%20third%20stage%20and%20the%20three%20EU%20members%20still%20use%20their%20own%20currency%20today.">A monetary union <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monetary_union> is a situation where several countries have agreed to share a single currency amongst themselves. The European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) consists of three stages coordinating economic policy and culminating with the adoption of the euro <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro>, the EU's single currency. All member states of the European Union <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union> are expected to participate in the EMU. Sixteen member states <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurozone> of the European Union have entered the third stage and have adopted the euro as their currency. The United Kingdom <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom>, Denmark <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark> and Sweden <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden> have not accepted the third stage and the three EU members still use their own currency today.

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