Информация

• 521. Civil marriage in Russia
  Иностранные языки

   

  1. А. И. Антонов. Изучение репродуктивных установок как одна из важнейших задач социально-психологического исследования семьи // Динамика изменения положения женщины и семья. Материалы ХИ Международного семинара по исследованию семьи. Вып. 1.М., 1972.С 13-24:
  2. Антонов А.И. Социология рождаемости. М., 1980
  3. Антонов. А. И. Микросоциология семьи (методология исследования структур и процессов). М., 1998. 360 с.
  4. Артюхов А. В. Государственная семейная политика и ее особенности в России // СОЦИС. 2007. № 7. С. 108110.
  5. Байков Н. М. Молодая семья в условиях рынка (итоги социологического исследования) / под ред. Н. М. Байкова., Т. И. Захаровой, С. В. Задорожного. Хабаровск, 2006. 114 с
  6. Борисов В. А. Демография и социальная психология. Доклад на VII социологическом конгрессе. М„ 1970
  7. Борисов В. А. Перспективы рождаемости. М., 1976.
  8. Вебер М. Избранные произведения. М., 1990. 804 с.
  9. Дюркгейм Э. Социология. Ее предмет, метод, предназначение. М., 1995. 352 с.
  10. Дюркгейм Э. О разделении общественного труда // О разделении общественного труда. Метод социологии. М., 1991. С. 3390
  11. Гидденс Э. Трансформация интимности. Сексуальность, любовь и эротизм в современных обществах. СПб., 2004
  12. Голод С. И. Семья и брак: историко-социологический анализ. СПб., 1998. 272 с.
  13. Гурко Т. А. Вариативность представлений в сфере родительства // СОЦИС. 2000. № 11. С. 9097
  14. Гуд У. Социология семьи // Социология сегодня: Проблемы и перспективы. М., 1965
  15. Гуд. У. Развитие теории семьи // Социология сегодня. Проблемы и перспективы. М., 1969
  16. Карцева Л.В. Модель семьи в условиях трансформации российского общества. Социс, 2003, №7
  17. Ковалевский М. М. Очерк происхождения и развития семьи и собственности. М., 1939. 185 с
  18. Михеева А. Р. Брак, семья, родительство: социологические и демографические аспекты. Новосибирск, 2007. 74 с.
  19. Михеева А. Р. От сожительства к семье (взгляд на трансформацию института брака сквозь призму женских историй) // Общество и экономика: социальные проблемы трансформации. Новосибирск, 1998. С. 169184
  20. Михеева А. Р. Сожительства и внебрачная рождаемость: признаки кризиса или стабильности социального ин-ститута семьи? // Семья в новых социально-экономических условиях : материалы междунар. науч.-практ. конф. (Н. Новгород, 210 окт. 1997 г.) / под ред. проф. З. М. Саралиевой. Н. Новгород, 1998. T. I. С. 126129.
  21. Морган Л. Г. Древнее общество или исследование линий человеческого прогресса от дикости через варварство к цивилизации. Л., 1934. С. 216305.
  22. Спенсер Г. Основания социологии // Сочинения. СПб., 1898. Т. 2 707 с.
  23. Dorien М. Dynamics in marriage and cohabitation. Amsterdam, 2006
  24. Jamieson L., Anderson M. Сohabitation and commitment: partnership plans og young men and women. The Sociological Rework, aug, 2004
  25. Solot D., Miller M. Unmarried to each other. 2003

• 522. Classic philosophy of quality
  Иностранные языки

  The main figure of such society is an user. His requirements (if they are socially safe) possess priority above possibilities of producer, and are on the defensive establishments of the state and society. Can be considered major achievements of "society of consumption":

  1. successive making reality of ideas of trade freedom, that resulted in international market of commodities and services creation an user in any country can acquire a commodity, produced in any country; investigation of it is the sharp intensifying of competition of producers, intensifying of their fight for upgrading products and competition prices, for the decline of terms of output of commodity to the market and at the same time strengthening of co-operation and collaboration in a production and advancement of commodities to the market;
  2. development of the systems of state and public defense of rights for users on high-quality products and services; these systems of defense not only allow an user to exact from a producer harm for of poor quality products and services but also warn the market entry of such products, and also limit monopolization of market a producer; investigation of it is a necessity of producer to give an user the system of proofs of quality of commodity yet till user this commodity purchased;
  3. high enough level of consciousness of users which agree to pay for quality and ready to co-operate with a producer in his increase.

• 523. Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643)
  Литература

  Его попытка создавать практическую философию музыки происходила в течение 1620-ых и привела к дальнейшему стилистическому развитию музыки Клаудио. Следуя идеям Платона, он разделил эмоции на три основных вида: любовь, война и спокойствие. Каждый из них выражался разными ритмами и гармониями. Следующим шагом развития его теории стало откровенное принятие реализма подражание различными способами звукам природы. Отражением этих идей стала драматическая кантата «Битва Танкреди и Клоринды». В ней, например, быстрое, ритмичное повторение отдельных нот вкупе с пиццикато на струнных выражают удары мечей, что, несомненно, является шагом вперёд в идиоматическом использовании струнных инструментов. Тенденция сохранилась и в комической опере «Licoris, Который Притворился Безумным», вероятно, предназначенной для Празднования инаугурации герцога Винченцо Второго из Мантуи в 1627, ноты которой вследствие были утеряны, хотя и остались свидетельства очевидцев. Годом позже Монтеверди перенес тяжёлый удар - его старший сын Максимиллиан, учившийся на медика в Болонье за чтение запрещенных Инквизицией книг, был заключен в тюрьму. Несколько месяцев спустя обвинение с Максимиллиана было снято, и в том же году Клаудио получил заказ на написание музыки к торжественной части турнира в Парме, посвящённого бракосочетанию герцога Эдуардо Фарнес и Маргариты де Медичи. В 1630 году вспыхнула чума, которая чудом обошла Монтеверди и его семейство стороной, более того, принеся Клаудио множество заказов на написание духовной музыки. Так, он написал мессу для службы Благодарения в соборе св. Марка, где было официально объявлено об эпидемии. «Глория», известная в наши дни, следует традициям и являет собой пример соответствия настроения музыки и текста. И оба этих, и другие произведения церковной тематики, написанные, вероятно, в то же время, несут в себе заряд величественной мудрости, которой уступила место страсть его ранних творений. То же можно сказать и о книге избранных песен и дуэтов, опубликованной годом позже, и сборнике мадригалов, отобранных самим Клаудио и изданных в 1638-м. Эта обширная ретроспективная антология музыки, написанной начиная с 1608 года, является блестящей иллюстрацией теории Монтеверди и полностью соответствует своему названию «Мадригалы войны и любви».

• 524. Claudius Ptolemy
  Разное

  In examining the theory of the sun, Ptolemy compares his own observations of equinoxes with those of Hipparchus and the earlier observations Meton in 432 BC. He confirmed the length of the tropical year as 1/300 of a day less than 365 1/4 days, the precise value obtained by Hipparchus. Since, as Ptolemy himself knew, the accuracy of the rest of his data depended heavily on this value, the fact that the true value is 1/128 of a day less than 365 1/4 days did produce errors in the rest of the work. We shall discuss below in more detail the accusations which have been made against Ptolemy, but this illustrates clearly the grounds for these accusations since Ptolemy had to have an error of 28 hours in his observation of the equinox to produce this error, and even given the accuracy that could be expected with ancient instruments and methods, it is essentially unbelievable that he could have made an error of this magnitude. A good discussion of this strange error is contained in the excellent article .

• 525. Climate and Weather in Great Britain (Климат и погода в Великобритании)
  География

  No place in Britain is more than 120 km from the sea. But although the British are crowded very closely in a very small country, there is one respect in which they are very fortunate. This is their climate. Perhaps, this is a surprising statement because almost everyone has heard how annoying the weather usually is in England. Because of the frequent clouds and the moisture that hangs in the air even on fairly clear days, England has less sunshine than most countries, and the sunlight is weaker then in other places where the air is dry and clear. What is worse, sunshine rarely lasts long enough for a person to have time to enjoy it. The weather changes constantly. No ordinary person can guess from one day to another which season he will find himself in when he wakes in the morning. Moreover, a day in January may be as warm as a warm day in July and a day in July may be as cold as the coldest in January.

• 526. Climate change
  Экология

  Summary of Actions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions
  (Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent)Action
  NumberAction Title1993 Action
  Plan EstimateRevised Estimate*20002000200520102020 Residential & Commercial Sector Actions26.910.329.453.0 78.41Rebuild America2.01.63.06.3 7.11 & 2Expanded Green Lights and Energy Star Buildings3.63.48.516.3 30.23State Revolving Fund for Public Buildings1.1Terminated 4Cost-Shared Demonstrations of Emerging Technologies5Operation and Maintenance Training for Commercial Building Facility
  Managers and Operators3.80.00.51.0 1.06Energy Star® Products5.04.312.919.4 24.97Residential Appliance Standards6.80.21.83.7 3.88 and 11Energy Partnerships for Affordable Housing9Cool Communities4.40.61.94.3 7.710Update State Building CodesNewConstruction of Energy­Efficient Commercial and Industrial BuildingsNot included0.10.4 1.12.6NewSuperwindow CollaborativeNot included0.00.1 0.41.3NewExpand Markets for Next­Generation Lighting ProductsNot included0.20.4 0.70.9NewFuel Cells InitiativeNot included0.00.0 0.10.4Industrial Sector Actions19.04.88.211.5 16.712Motor Challenge8.81.83.95.8 7.513Industrial Golden Carrot Programs2.9MergedintoMotorChallenge (#12) 14Accelerate the Adoption of Energy­Efficient Process TechnologiesTerminated15Industrial Assessment Centers0.5CCAPComponent Terminated 16Waste Minimization**4.22.13.65.0 8.417Improve Efficiency of Fertilizer Nitrogen Use***2.70.80.80.9 1.118Reduce the Use of PesticidesTerminatedTransportation Sector Actions8.15.311.515.5 22.119Cash Value of Parking20Innovative Transportation Strategies6.64.68.410.9 17.021Telecommuting Program22Fuel Economy Labels for Tires1.50.73.24.8 5.3Energy Supply Actions10.81.33.77.0 18.923Increase Natural Gas Share of Energy Use Through Federal Regulatory Reform2.2Terminated24Promote Seasonal Gas Use for Control of Nitrogen Oxides2.80.50.00.0 0.025High­Efficiency Gas Technologies0.6Terminated26Renewable­Energy Commercialization0.80.32.95.6 16.427Expand Utility Integrated Resource Planning1.4Terminated28Profitable Hydroelectric Efficiency Upgrades2.00.00.00.0 0.029Energy­Efficient Distribution Transformer Standards30Energy Star Distribution Transformers0.80.50.81.4 2.831Transmission Pricing Reform0.8TerminatedNewGreen Power NetworkNot Included0.0Not quantified Land-Use Change & Forestry Actions+10.02.43.3 4.25.1 43Reduce Depletion of Nonindustrial4.0TerminatedPrivate Forests44Accelerate Tree Planting in0.50.41.3 2.23.1 Nonindustrial Private Forests16Waste Minimization**4.22.02.0 2.02.0 9Expand Cool Communities0.5Not quantifiedMethane Actions16.315.519.023.4 24.232Expand Natural Gas STAR3.03.43.8 4.24.3 33Increase Stringency of Landfill Rule4.26.37.7 9.15.9 34Landfill Methane Outreach Program1.11.92.2 2.94.3 35Coalbed Methane Outreach Program2.22.62.9 3.24.0 36RD&D for Coal Mine Methane1.5Terminated37RD&D for Landfill Methane1.0Terminated38AgSTAR Program1.50.30.8 1.83.2 39Ruminant Livestock Efficiency Program1.81.01.6 2.22.5 Actions to Address Other Greenhouse Gases16.325.440.445.8 54.517Improve Efficiency of Fertilizer Nitrogen Use***4.55.35.3 5.35.3 40Significant New Alternatives Program5.06.419.6 23.129.8 41HFC­23 Partnerships5.05.05.0 5.05.0 42Voluntary Aluminum Industrial Partnership1.82.22.4 2.42.4 NewEnvironmental Stewardship InitiativeNot included6.58.1 10.012.0 Foundation Actions++11.310.79.512.3 Climate WiseNot estimated1.82.7 3.74.5 Climate Challenge+++Not estimated7.65.0 1.61.5 State and Local Outreach ProgramsNot estimated1.93.0 4.26.3 Total GHG Emission Reductions108.676.0128.3169.3 229.5 From CCAP ProgramsNotes: Several of the Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP) programs are part of larger federal efforts. These programs include Actions 2, 4, 6, 7, 15, 16, 27, 32, and 33. Only the CCAP portions of these programs are included in this table. Also, numbers may not add precisely due to interactive effects and rounding.

• 527. Cold War
  История

  Such suffering provided the backdrop for a bitter controversy over whether the United States and Britain were doing enough to assume their own just share of the fight. Roosevelt understood that Russia's battle was America's. "The Russian armies are killing more Axis personnel and destroying more Axis materiel," he wrote General Douglas MacArthur in 1942, "than all the other twenty-five United Nations put together." As soon as the Germans invaded Russia, the president ordered that lend-lease material be made immediately available to the Soviet Union, instructing his personal aide to get $22 million worth of supplies on their way by July 25one month after the German invasion. Roosevelt knew that, unless the Soviets were helped quickly, they would be forced out of the war, leaving the United States in an untenable position. "If [only] the Russians could hold the Germans until October 1," the president said. At a Cabinet meeting early in August, Roosevelt declared himself "sick and tired of hearing . . . what was on order"; he wanted to hear only "what was on the water." Roosevelt's commitment to lend-lease reflected his deep conviction that aid to the Soviets was both the most effective way of combating German aggression and the strongest means of building a basis of trust with Stalin in order to facilitate postwar cooperation. "I do not want to be in the same position as the English," Roosevelt told his Secretary of the Treasury in 1942. "The English promised the Russians two divisions. They failed. They promised them to help in the Caucasus. They failed. Every promise the English have made to the Russians, they have fallen down on. . . . The only reason we stand so well ... is that up to date we have kept our promises." Over and over again Roosevelt intervened directly and personally to expedite the shipment of supplies. "Please get out the list and please, with my full authority, use a heavy hand," he told one assistant. "Act as a burr under the saddle and get things moving!"

• 528. Colonization and Development of Pennsylvania
  Разное

  Pennsylvania had very rich cultural and social life. First of all, Pennsylvania was multi-cultural. The failure of all attempts by Indians and colonists to live side by side led the Indians to migrate westward, leaving Pennsylvania. Open territories were shared by majority of English Quakers, thousands of Germans, Scotch-Irish (which became one-fourth of population), smaller groups of Irish, Welsh, French, Jewish, Dutch and Swedes and African Americans,(mostly slaves and servants). Pennsylvania was popular for its religious tolerance. Big Lutheran and later Catholic churches, as well as smaller sects: Mennonites, Amish, German Baptist Brethren or "Dunkers," Schwenkfelders, and Moravians were common for this area. Because of the liberality of Penn's principles and the freedom of expression that prevailed, the province was noted for the variety and strength of its intellectual and educational institutions and interests. An academy which held its first classes in 1740 became the College of Philadelphia in 1755, and ultimately grew into the University of Pennsylvania. It was the only nondenominational college of the colonial period. The arts, the sciences, and the public buildings of Philadelphia were the marvel of the colonies. Many fine old buildings in the Philadelphia area still bear witness to the richness of Pennsylvania's civilization in the 18th century. Newspapers and magazines flourished, as did law and medicine. Pennsylvania can claim America's first hospital, first library, and first insurance company.

• 529. Comets&Logic \english\
  Разное

  About 150 soviet organization and enterprises took part in the creation of the station “Vega” [4]. The considerable forces and means were taken for the experiment carrying out. It may seeme, that the experiment have passed successfully, the unique data have been received about the structure of comet nucleus. Still, the author of these lines does not agree with a such synonymous appreciation, although he doesnt deny the fact, that there really as received some unique information.
  Even more, than a year ago before the peak of the events of the experiment “Vega”, the author formulated and argumentally substantiated the hypothesis about comets forming in the result of piercing the rings of the planet-giants of Solar system by asteroids. This hypothesis was prevented to the ISR and other organizations. Unfortunately the hypothesis has not been considered at the ISR and author received only formal letters.
  Comrades from the ISR adopted the ice nucleus comet (with soils) hypothesis among their weapons, as a dogma, which, ostensibly, was shiningly confirmed by the experiment. In accordance with this hypothesis, the ice comet nucleus must gush out great quantities of steam and dust, that was reflected on the experiment itself: the minimum distance from the nucleus at which the both “Vega” apparatuses passed by, was intentionally chose within the limits of 8-9 thou km, although the actual precision of pointing was not worse than 1500 km. Only apparatus “Jiotto” (although not without the aid of the “Vegas”) passed closely to the nucleus and showed the features of a relief: hills, craters.
  In conformity with the author hypothesis the comet nucleus must be monolithic: stony, iron-stony, ferrous by the type of mothers asteroid. Gases, given off by nucleus under the Solar heating, - are the result of absorbtion and adsobtion the gases and other volatile components, composing the particles of the rings of major-planets. Thus, the ejections from the comet nucleus (“soiled” asteroid) must be comparatively small. To the point, it is confirmed by the data of apparatus “ICE” (ex “ISEE-3”), which passed through the tail of Jacobini-Cinner comet on 11 September 1985 (before the peak of the experiment “Vega”) the distance of 7850 km from the nucleus and which fixed an unexpectedly small density of the dust [5,6]. The experiment with the station “Vega-1” showed, that dust density is significantly less, than it was predicted by the “ice” model of the nucleus. In connection with this circumstance author sent a telegram at the ISR. The mistake may be corrected, inasmuch as also “Vega-2” took place and it trajectory may be improved so that photos would qualitative really, still it is no happened…
  But, after all, strictly speaking, even if both “Vegas” would be directed straight to the nucleus (with the accuracy of aiming equal to 1500 km all the same the result would be negative: they wouldnt hit the aim!) and on approaching to it they would be put out of order but still the task of the stations would be fulfilled as far as the information was transferred to the Earth in the real time. Nowadays the capacity for work of the two stations are no longer of any importance because the unique chance has been lost… There were two “Vegas” and each of them passed by the comet nucleus at the distance of 8-9 thousands km! It may be compared with the situation when the volcano eruption taking place at the Kamtchatka is observed from Moscow. It at least “Vega-2” approached closer to the nucleus then it would be possible to excuse the ambiguities and sheer blunder of the type: “The Halley-comet has a double nucleus?!” or “…it seems that the nucleus has no clear boundaries, - it is similar to a boiling pot” [7] according to the data of “Vega-1”. In [8] the following figures are offered: the time error of the meeting with the nucleus is 10-20 s, a relative velocity of the approach of SA (space apparatus) to the comet is less than 80 km/s. Consequently, the possible error of the two “Vegas” aiming (multiply these figures) is not more than 1.5 thousand km. Why was it necessary to fulfil such a senseless double? And who was interested in it?
  However, it was proudly declared that both of the stations are keeping their capacity for work and now the objects in Universe are searched that might be studied by the “Vegas”. Still, this declaration sounds as no more than an attempt to appologise their own mistakes (but to-day we dont hear much about these searches). Let us wish the ISR sucsess as far as the area of the searches is very wide: the whole boundless space!
  Probably the author is a little bit exaggerating, on the photos of “Vega-2” something is seen and this was shown for first time by TV USSR on the 24th of April, 1986 (after the program “Vremya” (“Time”)), but in this very TV-program a sacramental statement was formulated: the comet nucleus is a dark, coal-like body having the coefficient of reflection comparable with that of asteroids! But you see, the author of this paper expressed his opinion on this point even more definitely more than a year ago! My first letter to the ISR was sent on the 20th of February, 1985! Then at the same TV-program an incorrect conclusion was heard about that the comet nucleus was still icy. The same very thesis was formulated by Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev in [9, p.88]: “…the hypothesis according to which the comet nucleus is an enormous block of “dirty” ice of an irregular form has been confirmed…Its surface is covered by a crust of some refractory material having the thickness of about a centimeter the composition of this material is being specified”. The thesis is repeated with a really enviable persistence! R.Z.Sagdeyev is echoed by Professor V.I. Moroz the author of the so-called nucleus model in the form of a “March snow-drift” [10,11] that at first sight seems to be convincing. But this is at first sight only! The case is that this model is not in principle able-bodied! Though I had no chache to pick the nucleus of the Halley comet with my finger still I declare that the comparison of the comet nucleus with the March snow-drift is erroneous because of quite different physical condition. We know that specks of dust and mud dont fly away from the snow-drift due to the gravitation, and the Halley comet nucleus has practically no gravitation influence, as far as its mass is too small. Add to this the pressure of vapours being formed and dilating into vacuum… Under such circumstances even the crust of porous platinum would not keep at the surface for any considerable period of time, to say nothing of the impossibility of the process of the crust growth resulting in its self-renewal, i.e. the “March snow-drift” model that was widely advertised in disabled and groundless in principle!
  Basing on the theory of the icy nucleus it is difficult to explain the hills and craters at the surface discovered by “Jiotto”, not by the “Vegas”, as far as the melting of ice leads to the smoothing of “wounds” (Mr. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov is of the opinion that craters are percussive formations).
  Probably, R.Z.Sagdeyev and his colleagues being the focus of attention of the press and taking a great interest in giving away autographs were too busy and had no time not only to analyse the materials which I sent them but even to go deep into their own statements. Let us recall the situation around the experiment “Vega”: at first there were a lot of advertising in the press, by radio and TV, then the experiment itself was carried out and were promised that the results were to be published soon. Now the racket has been finally faded and it turns out that to “process the obtained material” requires a considerable time (more than a year) and the results will be published in special journals. And nowadays our attention is switched over to the project “Phobos” (“Fobos”) (writed in 1986 - Rem. A.G.). As for the Halley comet, it turns out that the answer to all the questions might be finally given probably only in 76 years when its next visit to the Sun takes place and well have at our disposal different technical possibilities - such a “regret” was expressed by the Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev (wasnt it done so that not to return any longer to this an unpleasant for him questions?). I am afraid that this “regret” is simulated. Still I suppose that tens of millions of roubles were not wasted only for the sake of vague knowledge?
  However, it is interesting to note that in [9] R.Z.Sagdeyev writes: “…the inevitability of the objective tendency doesnt diminish our responsibility before this (i.e. communist A.G.) future…”. Here undoubtedly Acad. R.Z.Sagdeyev is right. I would like to remind of that the USA are planning to realize their projects “Asteroid Flieby” and “Comets Rendezvous” earlier than in 76 years and the USSR may lose its priority in the science of comets…
  A comet nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the incident light [12], so it may be conclude that it is a black body of a good quality! And it was really difficult to call it icy.
  In [10] R.Z.Sagdeyev revealed a turn in his works that is unexpected enough, the academician writes: “Outwardly it (i.e. the object A.G.) is somewhat like Marss satellites - Phobos and Daimos (the “Phobos” project is in prospect with R.Z.Sagdeyev (in 1986) here is a sound logical connection for you! A.G.) but still more similar analogues may be some small satellites of Saturn and Uranus. This keeps within the frames of the hypothesis (I wonder, which and whose? As far as before this there was said a lot of nonsense about the cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc. A.G.), assuming, that comet nuclei were formed comparatively not far from the Sun, approximately at the placewhere the major planets are located from Jupiter to Neptune, and then were thrown off at a greater distance during the formation of these planets” (underlined by A.G.). Any explanation is needless… For Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev it remains nothing but to wait a little more and to pronounce quite a fatal phrase: “It seems to me that comet nuclei were generated out of asteroids while the latter were punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system…” i.e. to read at last the formula of my discovery.
  In [13] we were told that during the “Vega” experiment the amount of steam lost by the comet nucleus every second was measured for the first time. And the figure of tens of tons was cited. It would be interesting to know in what way this figure was obtained as far as there were no direct measurements of this index (for this purpose it would be ideal to place the comet nucleus into a sack!). However the author of this paper having at his disposal such values as the cross section of the nucleus, integral flow of the solar energy per unit of the area (i.e. solar constant taking into account the distance from the Sun) has determined the amount of water that may be heated from 3oK (the temperature of the cosmic background) up to the vaporous condition (with the account of all the phase transfers) per 1 second and has obtained the figure of the same order that in [13], assuming that ice is a black body (Kabs = 0.96). It means that this figure was simply calculated in ISR on the basis of their faulse model, i.e. the desirable was claimed as real.
  The apparatus “Jiotto” revealed the jet escaping of gas (vapours). The intensity in jets may not be higher than the physical limit caused by the ideal conditions of the solar heating (as far as the nucleus is not a gas-bag) and also by the accepted physical model (let it be even a black icy nucleus), consequently, the intensity out of the jet is much lower than the physical limit and the total loss of the nucleus mass in the form of vapour is in any case considerably lower than the figure mentioned in [13] and which representing the physical limit. Besides, it is known that the Halley-comet nucleus is rotating and one side of it is more active [14] and consequently the other is on the contrary less active. This circumstance reinforces the “activity contrast” and lowers the index. Thus the figure of 40 tons of the vapour lost by the comet per one second is exaggerated (and not by the order!), and if to take into account my hypothesis (i.e. the nucleus is the asteroid in its basis) it is exaggerated still more. The “Vega” apparatuses passed at a great relative velocity (~ 80 km/s) by the Halley comet nucleus thus creating their own blast, the amount of the registered dust and gas is to be distributed over a lot of kilometers of the trajectory; the dust and gas in their basic part may fly together with the comet and break off from it not so fast as it may seem taking account of all the forces and factors (many of them though weak act in great scales) may lead to an unusual result.
  Note that the fact consisting in that one side is more active than the other substantially confirms the mechanism of the comets formation as the result of punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids (see the materials of the application for the discovery), as far as the time of punching the ring by an asteroid (<1 s) is not sufficient for the asteroid to swing significantly. The porosity of coaly hondrites, for instance (and as hondrites may serve asteroids and also, in particular, the nucleus of the Halley-comet) may reach the value of more than 20% [15], that may promote a significant adsorption and absorption of volatile components which the ring contains. You should not forget that the punching of the ring (the layer of small bodies of the finite thickness and some average density) by a large asteroid is the process of a successive interaction of a massive monolithic body of irregular form with a great number of small bodies during a certain time interval. In this case as the evaporation of the colliding bodies is going on the shock wave will be growing “smoothly” enough and exerting its influence for a long time. In general, the physics of such an interaction differes from the physics of the stroke of two solid bodies commensurable with each other and is of interest as the object of a separate investigation both theoretical and experimental. It is obvious, however, that this circumstance may promote the capture of the volatile components of the ring.
  And now some remarks in respect of the photoes made by the “Vegas” apparatuses. In [10] Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev says that: “Powerful dust rejections are slightly camouflaging the nucleus surface but a detailed photometrical treatment allowed to determine its form, dimensions and reflecting ability”. However theres no statement that they succeeded is seeing the nucleus surface itself. Theres no doubt that the averaging of images, space filtering, etc., may “emphasize” something but they are not able to “extract” the information that is absent in the initial image. In this connection the statement that the images of the comet nucleus proper were obtained is not quiet correct. Incorrect and groundless is also the statement about that “...in comets... the material of which the Solar system was generated is preserved in its original form” [4]. Comets occur and die nowadays with the probability which estimated the above.
  After the “Vega” experiment a number of new hypotheses of the comet formation appeared, but they dont resolve all the contradiction in contrast to that offered by the author. At present the major part of specialists suppose that asteroids are dead comets (those left after the melting of ice - the main component). This point of work is an intermediate one, as far as it would be more correct to say: some asteroids are dead comets (the main component of the comet mass is the asteroid proper).
  The basic arguments were formulated by the author as far back as the beginning of 1985 and were expressed in the letters, besides in 1986 they found their reflection in the materials of the Application. At present these materials may be only supplemented in the light of the new experimental facts and data.
  The potent aspects of the hypothesis are:
  - its concrete character and the absence of any obstacles for the further concretization; absence of any abstractions of the type comet cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc., that were seen by nobody;
  - logical inevitability of the offered mechanism, caused by the absence of physical interdictions and the finite value of the probability of the event;
  - possibility of a versatile verification;
  - logical connection with all the available facts.
  Besides, the hypothesis at the same time gives a harmonious picture of such a phenomenon as the “Tungus meteorite” (appendix to the Application, here chapter 6), that in general agrees with new works on this phenomenon [16] and removes any misticism and mystery, created around this sensational question.
  
  5. TERMINOLOGY AND EXCEPTION TO THE RULE
  
  If the term “comet” implies a small celestial body with a gaseous cover (coma) or tail consisting of gas and dust that is probably more concrete than a vague meaning of this word given in dictionaries, then the author proposes to call the comets formed as result of piercimg of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids to call these comets “samaroid(s)” - in honour of the city of Samara which in 1986 celebrated its 400th anniversary (that was also the year of the Halley-comet). As it follows from the introduction to this article this name “samaroid” is quite justified.
  For the comets formed as a result of an asteroid passing along the trajectory close to the tangent through the atmosphere of such planets as the Earth, Mars and Venus (the Earth group) - it is known at least one case when a bolide (fire-ball) entered the atmosphere of the Earth, passed it through and then again went away beyond the limits of the atmosphere and at this it didnt become the Earth satellite - the author proposes the name (or term) “novid”. Though the probability of the formation of weak comets is such a way is almost zero, still it should not be fully excluded out of the sphere of our attention. After the contact with the atmosphere any celestial body takes away with it a portion of gases. Even SA - artificial Earth satellites have their own atmosphere. The term “novid” descend from the name of a small and very picturesque village “Novinky” situated in the Zhiguli mountains near the city of Samara within the area of the first national park in Russia (not 1st in the USSR) “Samarskaya Luka”.
  The two terms proposed by the author symbolize the unity of great and small in the Universe...
  For the comets out of the cloud Oort (let it be so! - the author is just enough) the author offers the term “Oortides”. - Let the Time to prove the vitality of these names.
  Thus, the “cosmic bulldozer” - the Halley-comet is, apparently, a ferrous-stony “samaroid” belonging to the Neptune (or Uranus?) family.
  
  6. TUNGUS PHENOMENON
  
  One of the arguments against the proposed mechanism of the comet formation may be a false interpretation of the event that took place in 1908 and is known under the name “Tungus meteorite” as far as the zone of fall was of an unusual character; the meteorite proper was not found. In this connection a great number of hypotheses appeared on the collision of the Earth and the icy comet that later on evaporated. But as far as the comet is no more than a “dirty asteroid” and is not a very original one as for the results of its influence then the author offers the following non-contradictory explanation of the event (without any pretension on originality).
  At 8 oclock a.m. on the 30th of June, 1908, in the Tungus taiga the event took place known under the name of “Tungus meteorite”.
  The examination of the place of the Tungus meteorite fall in 1927 and later on showed the absence of the meteor body and craters. The woods within the radius of 30 km was brought down by the blast [17, p.54]. All these in total was unlike a usual fall of meteorite.
  Take notice of several facts.
  After the fall of Sihote-Alin meteorite in 1947 numerous splinters were found. On having analysed these splinters a soviet scientist E.L.Krinov marked out conditionally three stages of the meteorite splintering into composing parts by a number of characteristic signs [17, p.42].
  At the Tungus meteorite fall an unusual phenomenon was observed: at the vast territory to the west of the place of the meteorite fall the night from the 30th of June to the 1st of July practically did not set in [17, p.53]. The sky was light and even in England it was possible to read a paper at this time (this phenomenon is, apparently, belonging to the type of “crepuscular” ones as far as this season the Sun sets not far beyond the horizon and the diffusion of Solar light may occur in the upper layers on fine-dispersed particles). At the same time to the east of the place of the meteorite fall there was nothing of the kind. This circumstance substantially confirms the assumption that the trajectory of the Tungus meteorite fall was close to the tangent to the Earth surface, i.e. the meteorite entered the atmosphere of the Earth at the small angle to the horizon. At such a trajectory the meteorite must move significantly longer in the Earth atmosphere, experiencing at this its resistance and being subjected to destruction. Thus, there are all the grounds to suppose that the number of stages of destruction of the Tungus meteorite was more than that of the Sihote-Alin meteorite (mentioned above) and on approaching to the place of its fall the Tungus meteorite was almost completely destroyed to small splinters, forming a kind of a cloud consisting of stony hail or “rain” if the body was melted in addition. On collision of this cloud with the Earth surface a powerful blast must be generated over a great area and in fact this phenomenon took place in case of the Tungus meteorite. Besides, recently in the region of the explosion the microscopic balls were discovered. These balls were not of the earthly nature [17, p.55].
  Thus, the Tungus meteorite is a small cosmic-body entered the Earth atmosphere by the trajectory close to the tangent and consequently subjected to the full destruction.
  
  References
  
  1. “This enigmatic Halley comet”. “Volzhkaya Zarya” (“Volgas sunset glow”) (a newspaper), 18 April, 1986, Kuibyshev, Russia, USSR.
  2. A.G.Goncharov. Application for the discovery “Comets formation phenomenon”. Archives of the All-Union Patent Library, № OT-11432, Moscow.
  3. F.L.Whipple. “Orbiting the Sun”, London, 1981.
  4. “Pravda”, the issue on the 19th March, 1986.
  5. E.Mukin. “Meeting with the Comet of Jacobini-Cinner”, “Science and Technique”, 1986, № 6, p.20, Moscow.
  6. G.K.Brandt, M.B.Nider-junior. Comet Tails Structure, “In the World of Science” “V Mire Nauki”(Translated in Russian), 1983, v.3, p.24-33.
  7. “Pravda”, the issue on the 12th March, 1986.
  8. “The Way to the Comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 17th April, 1986.
  9. “Communist”, v.5, 1986, Moscow.
  10. “Meeting with Halley-comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 6th of May, 1986.
  11. “From “Vega” to “Phobos””, “Znaniye-sila” (“Knowledze is Force”), 1986, v.12, p. 11-14, Moscow.
  12. “Science and Technique”, 1986, v.11, p.6, Riga, Latvia, USSR.
  13. “Science and Life”, 1986, v.7, Moscow.
  14. V.M.Balebanov, “”Vega”- project: final stage”, collect. ”Modern Achievments in Cosmonautics”, Moscow, “Znaniye”(“Knowledge”), 1986.
  15. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov. “Origin of Small Bodies of the Solar System”, “Astronomical Journal”, 1986, v.63, ed.1, p. 181-183, Moscow.
  16. N.N.Piluguin, T.A.Chernova. “Radiation Heat exchange of a Meteors-Body in Approximation of Radiant Heat-Conduction”, “Cosmic Researches”, 1986, v.24, ed.1, p. 58.
  17. V.S.Guetman. “Meteors and Meteorites”, Moscow, “Znaniye”, Ser. Cosmonautics, Astronomy. 1984, v. 2.

• 530. Comets&Logic english
  Разное

  About 150 soviet organization and enterprises took part in the creation of the station “Vega” [4]. The considerable forces and means were taken for the experiment carrying out. It may seeme, that the experiment have passed successfully, the unique data have been received about the structure of comet nucleus. Still, the author of these lines does not agree with a such synonymous appreciation, although he doesnt deny the fact, that there really as received some unique information.
  Even more, than a year ago before the peak of the events of the experiment “Vega”, the author formulated and argumentally substantiated the hypothesis about comets forming in the result of piercing the rings of the planet-giants of Solar system by asteroids. This hypothesis was prevented to the ISR and other organizations. Unfortunately the hypothesis has not been considered at the ISR and author received only formal letters.
  Comrades from the ISR adopted the ice nucleus comet (with soils) hypothesis among their weapons, as a dogma, which, ostensibly, was shiningly confirmed by the experiment. In accordance with this hypothesis, the ice comet nucleus must gush out great quantities of steam and dust, that was reflected on the experiment itself: the minimum distance from the nucleus at which the both “Vega” apparatuses passed by, was intentionally chose within the limits of 8-9 thou km, although the actual precision of pointing was not worse than 1500 km. Only apparatus “Jiotto” (although not without the aid of the “Vegas”) passed closely to the nucleus and showed the features of a relief: hills, craters.
  In conformity with the author hypothesis the comet nucleus must be monolithic: stony, iron-stony, ferrous by the type of mothers asteroid. Gases, given off by nucleus under the Solar heating, - are the result of absorbtion and adsobtion the gases and other volatile components, composing the particles of the rings of major-planets. Thus, the ejections from the comet nucleus (“soiled” asteroid) must be comparatively small. To the point, it is confirmed by the data of apparatus “ICE” (ex “ISEE-3”), which passed through the tail of Jacobini-Cinner comet on 11 September 1985 (before the peak of the experiment “Vega”) the distance of 7850 km from the nucleus and which fixed an unexpectedly small density of the dust [5,6]. The experiment with the station “Vega-1” showed, that dust density is significantly less, than it was predicted by the “ice” model of the nucleus. In connection with this circumstance author sent a telegram at the ISR. The mistake may be corrected, inasmuch as also “Vega-2” took place and it trajectory may be improved so that photos would qualitative really, still it is no happened…
  But, after all, strictly speaking, even if both “Vegas” would be directed straight to the nucleus (with the accuracy of aiming equal to 1500 km all the same the result would be negative: they wouldnt hit the aim!) and on approaching to it they would be put out of order but still the task of the stations would be fulfilled as far as the information was transferred to the Earth in the real time. Nowadays the capacity for work of the two stations are no longer of any importance because the unique chance has been lost… There were two “Vegas” and each of them passed by the comet nucleus at the distance of 8-9 thousands km! It may be compared with the situation when the volcano eruption taking place at the Kamtchatka is observed from Moscow. It at least “Vega-2” approached closer to the nucleus then it would be possible to excuse the ambiguities and sheer blunder of the type: “The Halley-comet has a double nucleus?!” or “…it seems that the nucleus has no clear boundaries, - it is similar to a boiling pot” [7] according to the data of “Vega-1”. In [8] the following figures are offered: the time error of the meeting with the nucleus is 10-20 s, a relative velocity of the approach of SA (space apparatus) to the comet is less than 80 km/s. Consequently, the possible error of the two “Vegas” aiming (multiply these figures) is not more than 1.5 thousand km. Why was it necessary to fulfil such a senseless double? And who was interested in it?
  However, it was proudly declared that both of the stations are keeping their capacity for work and now the objects in Universe are searched that might be studied by the “Vegas”. Still, this declaration sounds as no more than an attempt to appologise their own mistakes (but to-day we dont hear much about these searches). Let us wish the ISR sucsess as far as the area of the searches is very wide: the whole boundless space!
  Probably the author is a little bit exaggerating, on the photos of “Vega-2” something is seen and this was shown for first time by TV USSR on the 24th of April, 1986 (after the program “Vremya” (“Time”)), but in this very TV-program a sacramental statement was formulated: the comet nucleus is a dark, coal-like body having the coefficient of reflection comparable with that of asteroids! But you see, the author of this paper expressed his opinion on this point even more definitely more than a year ago! My first letter to the ISR was sent on the 20th of February, 1985! Then at the same TV-program an incorrect conclusion was heard about that the comet nucleus was still icy. The same very thesis was formulated by Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev in [9, p.88]: “…the hypothesis according to which the comet nucleus is an enormous block of “dirty” ice of an irregular form has been confirmed…Its surface is covered by a crust of some refractory material having the thickness of about a centimeter the composition of this material is being specified”. The thesis is repeated with a really enviable persistence! R.Z.Sagdeyev is echoed by Professor V.I. Moroz the author of the so-called nucleus model in the form of a “March snow-drift” [10,11] that at first sight seems to be convincing. But this is at first sight only! The case is that this model is not in principle able-bodied! Though I had no chache to pick the nucleus of the Halley comet with my finger still I declare that the comparison of the comet nucleus with the March snow-drift is erroneous because of quite different physical condition. We know that specks of dust and mud dont fly away from the snow-drift due to the gravitation, and the Halley comet nucleus has practically no gravitation influence, as far as its mass is too small. Add to this the pressure of vapours being formed and dilating into vacuum… Under such circumstances even the crust of porous platinum would not keep at the surface for any considerable period of time, to say nothing of the impossibility of the process of the crust growth resulting in its self-renewal, i.e. the “March snow-drift” model that was widely advertised in disabled and groundless in principle!
  Basing on the theory of the icy nucleus it is difficult to explain the hills and craters at the surface discovered by “Jiotto”, not by the “Vegas”, as far as the melting of ice leads to the smoothing of “wounds” (Mr. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov is of the opinion that craters are percussive formations).
  Probably, R.Z.Sagdeyev and his colleagues being the focus of attention of the press and taking a great interest in giving away autographs were too busy and had no time not only to analyse the materials which I sent them but even to go deep into their own statements. Let us recall the situation around the experiment “Vega”: at first there were a lot of advertising in the press, by radio and TV, then the experiment itself was carried out and were promised that the results were to be published soon. Now the racket has been finally faded and it turns out that to “process the obtained material” requires a considerable time (more than a year) and the results will be published in special journals. And nowadays our attention is switched over to the project “Phobos” (“Fobos”) (writed in 1986 - Rem. A.G.). As for the Halley comet, it turns out that the answer to all the questions might be finally given probably only in 76 years when its next visit to the Sun takes place and well have at our disposal different technical possibilities - such a “regret” was expressed by the Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev (wasnt it done so that not to return any longer to this an unpleasant for him questions?). I am afraid that this “regret” is simulated. Still I suppose that tens of millions of roubles were not wasted only for the sake of vague knowledge?
  However, it is interesting to note that in [9] R.Z.Sagdeyev writes: “…the inevitability of the objective tendency doesnt diminish our responsibility before this (i.e. communist A.G.) future…”. Here undoubtedly Acad. R.Z.Sagdeyev is right. I would like to remind of that the USA are planning to realize their projects “Asteroid Flieby” and “Comets Rendezvous” earlier than in 76 years and the USSR may lose its priority in the science of comets…
  A comet nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the incident light [12], so it may be conclude that it is a black body of a good quality! And it was really difficult to call it icy.
  In [10] R.Z.Sagdeyev revealed a turn in his works that is unexpected enough, the academician writes: “Outwardly it (i.e. the object A.G.) is somewhat like Marss satellites - Phobos and Daimos (the “Phobos” project is in prospect with R.Z.Sagdeyev (in 1986) here is a sound logical connection for you! A.G.) but still more similar analogues may be some small satellites of Saturn and Uranus. This keeps within the frames of the hypothesis (I wonder, which and whose? As far as before this there was said a lot of nonsense about the cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc. A.G.), assuming, that comet nuclei were formed comparatively not far from the Sun, approximately at the placewhere the major planets are located from Jupiter to Neptune, and then were thrown off at a greater distance during the formation of these planets” (underlined by A.G.). Any explanation is needless… For Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev it remains nothing but to wait a little more and to pronounce quite a fatal phrase: “It seems to me that comet nuclei were generated out of asteroids while the latter were punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system…” i.e. to read at last the formula of my discovery.
  In [13] we were told that during the “Vega” experiment the amount of steam lost by the comet nucleus every second was measured for the first time. And the figure of tens of tons was cited. It would be interesting to know in what way this figure was obtained as far as there were no direct measurements of this index (for this purpose it would be ideal to place the comet nucleus into a sack!). However the author of this paper having at his disposal such values as the cross section of the nucleus, integral flow of the solar energy per unit of the area (i.e. solar constant taking into account the distance from the Sun) has determined the amount of water that may be heated from 3oK (the temperature of the cosmic background) up to the vaporous condition (with the account of all the phase transfers) per 1 second and has obtained the figure of the same order that in [13], assuming that ice is a black body (Kabs = 0.96). It means that this figure was simply calculated in ISR on the basis of their faulse model, i.e. the desirable was claimed as real.
  The apparatus “Jiotto” revealed the jet escaping of gas (vapours). The intensity in jets may not be higher than the physical limit caused by the ideal conditions of the solar heating (as far as the nucleus is not a gas-bag) and also by the accepted physical model (let it be even a black icy nucleus), consequently, the intensity out of the jet is much lower than the physical limit and the total loss of the nucleus mass in the form of vapour is in any case considerably lower than the figure mentioned in [13] and which representing the physical limit. Besides, it is known that the Halley-comet nucleus is rotating and one side of it is more active [14] and consequently the other is on the contrary less active. This circumstance reinforces the “activity contrast” and lowers the index. Thus the figure of 40 tons of the vapour lost by the comet per one second is exaggerated (and not by the order!), and if to take into account my hypothesis (i.e. the nucleus is the asteroid in its basis) it is exaggerated still more. The “Vega” apparatuses passed at a great relative velocity (~ 80 km/s) by the Halley comet nucleus thus creating their own blast, the amount of the registered dust and gas is to be distributed over a lot of kilometers of the trajectory; the dust and gas in their basic part may fly together with the comet and break off from it not so fast as it may seem taking account of all the forces and factors (many of them though weak act in great scales) may lead to an unusual result.
  Note that the fact consisting in that one side is more active than the other substantially confirms the mechanism of the comets formation as the result of punching the rings of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids (see the materials of the application for the discovery), as far as the time of punching the ring by an asteroid (<1 s) is not sufficient for the asteroid to swing significantly. The porosity of coaly hondrites, for instance (and as hondrites may serve asteroids and also, in particular, the nucleus of the Halley-comet) may reach the value of more than 20% [15], that may promote a significant adsorption and absorption of volatile components which the ring contains. You should not forget that the punching of the ring (the layer of small bodies of the finite thickness and some average density) by a large asteroid is the process of a successive interaction of a massive monolithic body of irregular form with a great number of small bodies during a certain time interval. In this case as the evaporation of the colliding bodies is going on the shock wave will be growing “smoothly” enough and exerting its influence for a long time. In general, the physics of such an interaction differes from the physics of the stroke of two solid bodies commensurable with each other and is of interest as the object of a separate investigation both theoretical and experimental. It is obvious, however, that this circumstance may promote the capture of the volatile components of the ring.
  And now some remarks in respect of the photoes made by the “Vegas” apparatuses. In [10] Academician R.Z.Sagdeyev says that: “Powerful dust rejections are slightly camouflaging the nucleus surface but a detailed photometrical treatment allowed to determine its form, dimensions and reflecting ability”. However theres no statement that they succeeded is seeing the nucleus surface itself. Theres no doubt that the averaging of images, space filtering, etc., may “emphasize” something but they are not able to “extract” the information that is absent in the initial image. In this connection the statement that the images of the comet nucleus proper were obtained is not quiet correct. Incorrect and groundless is also the statement about that “...in comets... the material of which the Solar system was generated is preserved in its original form” [4]. Comets occur and die nowadays with the probability which estimated the above.
  After the “Vega” experiment a number of new hypotheses of the comet formation appeared, but they dont resolve all the contradiction in contrast to that offered by the author. At present the major part of specialists suppose that asteroids are dead comets (those left after the melting of ice - the main component). This point of work is an intermediate one, as far as it would be more correct to say: some asteroids are dead comets (the main component of the comet mass is the asteroid proper).
  The basic arguments were formulated by the author as far back as the beginning of 1985 and were expressed in the letters, besides in 1986 they found their reflection in the materials of the Application. At present these materials may be only supplemented in the light of the new experimental facts and data.
  The potent aspects of the hypothesis are:
  - its concrete character and the absence of any obstacles for the further concretization; absence of any abstractions of the type comet cloud of Oort, Nemesida, etc., that were seen by nobody;
  - logical inevitability of the offered mechanism, caused by the absence of physical interdictions and the finite value of the probability of the event;
  - possibility of a versatile verification;
  - logical connection with all the available facts.
  Besides, the hypothesis at the same time gives a harmonious picture of such a phenomenon as the “Tungus meteorite” (appendix to the Application, here chapter 6), that in general agrees with new works on this phenomenon [16] and removes any misticism and mystery, created around this sensational question.
  
  5. TERMINOLOGY AND EXCEPTION TO THE RULE
  
  If the term “comet” implies a small celestial body with a gaseous cover (coma) or tail consisting of gas and dust that is probably more concrete than a vague meaning of this word given in dictionaries, then the author proposes to call the comets formed as result of piercimg of the major planets of the Solar system by asteroids to call these comets “samaroid(s)” - in honour of the city of Samara which in 1986 celebrated its 400th anniversary (that was also the year of the Halley-comet). As it follows from the introduction to this article this name “samaroid” is quite justified.
  For the comets formed as a result of an asteroid passing along the trajectory close to the tangent through the atmosphere of such planets as the Earth, Mars and Venus (the Earth group) - it is known at least one case when a bolide (fire-ball) entered the atmosphere of the Earth, passed it through and then again went away beyond the limits of the atmosphere and at this it didnt become the Earth satellite - the author proposes the name (or term) “novid”. Though the probability of the formation of weak comets is such a way is almost zero, still it should not be fully excluded out of the sphere of our attention. After the contact with the atmosphere any celestial body takes away with it a portion of gases. Even SA - artificial Earth satellites have their own atmosphere. The term “novid” descend from the name of a small and very picturesque village “Novinky” situated in the Zhiguli mountains near the city of Samara within the area of the first national park in Russia (not 1st in the USSR) “Samarskaya Luka”.
  The two terms proposed by the author symbolize the unity of great and small in the Universe...
  For the comets out of the cloud Oort (let it be so! - the author is just enough) the author offers the term “Oortides”. - Let the Time to prove the vitality of these names.
  Thus, the “cosmic bulldozer” - the Halley-comet is, apparently, a ferrous-stony “samaroid” belonging to the Neptune (or Uranus?) family.
  
  6. TUNGUS PHENOMENON
  
  One of the arguments against the proposed mechanism of the comet formation may be a false interpretation of the event that took place in 1908 and is known under the name “Tungus meteorite” as far as the zone of fall was of an unusual character; the meteorite proper was not found. In this connection a great number of hypotheses appeared on the collision of the Earth and the icy comet that later on evaporated. But as far as the comet is no more than a “dirty asteroid” and is not a very original one as for the results of its influence then the author offers the following non-contradictory explanation of the event (without any pretension on originality).
  At 8 oclock a.m. on the 30th of June, 1908, in the Tungus taiga the event took place known under the name of “Tungus meteorite”.
  The examination of the place of the Tungus meteorite fall in 1927 and later on showed the absence of the meteor body and craters. The woods within the radius of 30 km was brought down by the blast [17, p.54]. All these in total was unlike a usual fall of meteorite.
  Take notice of several facts.
  After the fall of Sihote-Alin meteorite in 1947 numerous splinters were found. On having analysed these splinters a soviet scientist E.L.Krinov marked out conditionally three stages of the meteorite splintering into composing parts by a number of characteristic signs [17, p.42].
  At the Tungus meteorite fall an unusual phenomenon was observed: at the vast territory to the west of the place of the meteorite fall the night from the 30th of June to the 1st of July practically did not set in [17, p.53]. The sky was light and even in England it was possible to read a paper at this time (this phenomenon is, apparently, belonging to the type of “crepuscular” ones as far as this season the Sun sets not far beyond the horizon and the diffusion of Solar light may occur in the upper layers on fine-dispersed particles). At the same time to the east of the place of the meteorite fall there was nothing of the kind. This circumstance substantially confirms the assumption that the trajectory of the Tungus meteorite fall was close to the tangent to the Earth surface, i.e. the meteorite entered the atmosphere of the Earth at the small angle to the horizon. At such a trajectory the meteorite must move significantly longer in the Earth atmosphere, experiencing at this its resistance and being subjected to destruction. Thus, there are all the grounds to suppose that the number of stages of destruction of the Tungus meteorite was more than that of the Sihote-Alin meteorite (mentioned above) and on approaching to the place of its fall the Tungus meteorite was almost completely destroyed to small splinters, forming a kind of a cloud consisting of stony hail or “rain” if the body was melted in addition. On collision of this cloud with the Earth surface a powerful blast must be generated over a great area and in fact this phenomenon took place in case of the Tungus meteorite. Besides, recently in the region of the explosion the microscopic balls were discovered. These balls were not of the earthly nature [17, p.55].
  Thus, the Tungus meteorite is a small cosmic-body entered the Earth atmosphere by the trajectory close to the tangent and consequently subjected to the full destruction.
  
  References
  
  1. “This enigmatic Halley comet”. “Volzhkaya Zarya” (“Volgas sunset glow”) (a newspaper), 18 April, 1986, Kuibyshev, Russia, USSR.
  2. A.G.Goncharov. Application for the discovery “Comets formation phenomenon”. Archives of the All-Union Patent Library, № OT-11432, Moscow.
  3. F.L.Whipple. “Orbiting the Sun”, London, 1981.
  4. “Pravda”, the issue on the 19th March, 1986.
  5. E.Mukin. “Meeting with the Comet of Jacobini-Cinner”, “Science and Technique”, 1986, № 6, p.20, Moscow.
  6. G.K.Brandt, M.B.Nider-junior. Comet Tails Structure, “In the World of Science” “V Mire Nauki”(Translated in Russian), 1983, v.3, p.24-33.
  7. “Pravda”, the issue on the 12th March, 1986.
  8. “The Way to the Comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 17th April, 1986.
  9. “Communist”, v.5, 1986, Moscow.
  10. “Meeting with Halley-comet”, “Pravda”, the issue on the 6th of May, 1986.
  11. “From “Vega” to “Phobos””, “Znaniye-sila” (“Knowledze is Force”), 1986, v.12, p. 11-14, Moscow.
  12. “Science and Technique”, 1986, v.11, p.6, Riga, Latvia, USSR.
  13. “Science and Life”, 1986, v.7, Moscow.
  14. V.M.Balebanov, “”Vega”- project: final stage”, collect. ”Modern Achievments in Cosmonautics”, Moscow, “Znaniye”(“Knowledge”), 1986.
  15. B.A.Vorontsov-Veliaminov. “Origin of Small Bodies of the Solar System”, “Astronomical Journal”, 1986, v.63, ed.1, p. 181-183, Moscow.
  16. N.N.Piluguin, T.A.Chernova. “Radiation Heat exchange of a Meteors-Body in Approximation of Radiant Heat-Conduction”, “Cosmic Researches”, 1986, v.24, ed.1, p. 58.
  17. V.S.Guetman. “Meteors and Meteorites”, Moscow, “Znaniye”, Ser. Cosmonautics, Astronomy. 1984, v. 2.

• 531. Communication Systems and Information Theory
  Разное

  3. The source and Channel Encoders. In order to further simplify the study of source models and channel models, it is helpful to partly isolate the effect of the source in a communication system from that of the channel. This can be done by breaking the encoder and decoder of Fig. 4.1. each into two parts as shown in Fig. 4.2. The purpose of the source encoder is to represent the source output by a sequence of binary digits and one of the major questions of concern is to determine how many binary digits per unit time are required to represents the output of any given source model. The purpose of the channel encoder and decoder is to allow the binary data sequences to be reliably reproduced at the output of the channel decoder, and one of course, whether restricting the encoder and decoder to the form of Fig. 4.2. imposes any fundamental limitations on the performance of the communication system. One of the most important results of the theory, however, is that under very broad conditions no such limitations are imposed (this does not say, however, that encoder and decoder of the form in Fig. 4.2. is always the most economical way to achieve a given performance). From a practical standpoint, the splitting of encoder and decoder is particularly convenient since it makes the design of the channel encoder and decoder virtually independent of the source encoder and decoder, using binary data as an interface. This, of course, facilitates the use of different sources on the same channel.

• 532. Company Profile - Max Petroleum
  Геодезия и Геология

• 533. Comparative analysis of economic growth and development of Brazil and Russian Federation. Period 2000-2010
  Экономика

  Brazil and Russian Federation are both middle income countries. They have gained international interest in 2002 when they were declared as members of BRIC countries, who have chance to become worlds leaders in the future or at least play more visible role in world order.in economic development indicators are most visible in population movement. When Brazil experiences high population growth Russian Federation grew at negative rate, which can in longer turn mean obstacle to growth. Income inequality is higher in Brazil, but is becoming lower, when in Russia the opposite is true. Brazil ranked 58 and Russia 63 with concern to global competitiveness index 2010-11. Brazil is doing much better fighting inflation than Russia, but Brazil experiences lower GDP growth rates. Russia has actually no public debt, with just 5,9 % GDP debt (due to oil revenues), Brazilian public debt is 60,8 % and they managed to lower it 2,3 percentage points in ten years.GDP per capita (PPP, constant prices) more than doubled in ten years (2000 to 2010), Brazilian increased almost by one third. Brazil experienced on average 3,14 % economic growth (1997-2010), Russia 4,42%. Both countries were hit by economic financial crisis 2009, but their economies were prepared. Brazilian growth in 2009 was - 0,644 % and year later already 4,03 %. Russian economy was hit harder, because they are more open than Brazil and due to drop in oil demand, what caused - 7,8 % growth in 2009, but she was back on track next year with 4 % growth.value added by economic activity is very similar between observed countries; this is due to similar economical development. The most important value added activity is for both: mining, manufacturing and utilities. 49 % of total industrial value added in Russia is dedicated to fuel, what shows on resource based growth. Supply side economic growth analysis has shown, that 50,3 % of whole economic growth in Brazil is dedicated to growth in capital (62,5 % in Russia), only 0,6 % to growth in labour (0,1 % in Russia) and 49,1 % to technology growth (38 % in Russia). The most important part of GDP in both countries is household consumption (61,5 % Brazil and 44,5 % Russia). Government spending, gross investments and import share are similar, but major difference is made in export. Russians export share in GDP is 32,5 %, when Brazilians is just 14,32 %. Between middle income countries Russia is unusually open and connected to other world, but they are still not WTO members. During the crisis the decline in output in both countries is due to fall of gross investment ( - 41 % RUS and - 10,2 % BRA).Brazilian export more than doubled and Russian export more than tripled from 2000 till 2009. Russian export is mostly based on petroleum and gas. Brazilian export is more diversified, but major changes happened in 2009 when revenues from primary goods export overtook manufactured goods export earnings. Especially export of iron ore (17 % of total export) increased. Brazilian number one trading partner is China. In the future observed countries can become more similar, with taking into concern oil foundlings in Brazil.

• 534. Comprehensive Income
  Разное

  Regarding reporting financial performance, international standards say the following:

  • IAS 1 requires presentation of a statement showing changes in equity. Various formats are allowed:
  • The statement shows (a) each item of income and expense, gain or loss, which, as required by other IASC Standards, is recognized directly in equity, and the total of these items, certain foreign currency translation gains and losses (IAS 21, The Effects of Changes in Foreign Exchange Rates), and changes in fair values of financial instruments (IAS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement)) and (b) net profit or loss for the period, but no total of (a) and (b). Owners investments and withdrawals of capital and other movements in retained earnings and equity capital are shown in the notes.
  • Same as above, but with a total of (a) and (b) (sometimes called “comprehensive income”). Again, owners investments and withdrawals of capital and other movements in retained earnings and equity capital. An example of this would be the traditional multicolumn statement of changes in shareholders equity.

• 535. Computer viruses
  Педагогика

  Apparently what the attacker did was this: he or she connected to sendmail (i.e., telnet victim.machine 25), issued the appropriate debug command, and had a small C program compiled. (We have it. Big deal.) This program took as an argument a host number, and copied two programs one ending in VAX.OS and the other ending in SunOS and tried to load and execute them. In those cases where the load and execution succeeded, the worm did two things (at least): spawn a lot of shells that did nothing but clog the process table and burn CPU cycles; look in two places the password file and the internet services file for other sites it could connect to (this is hearsay, but I don't doubt it for a minute). It used both individual .host files (which it found using the password file), and any other remote hosts it could locate which it had a chance of connecting to. It may have done more; one of our machines had a changed superuser password, but because of other factors we're not sure this worm did it.

• 536. Computers and Health
  Медицина, физкультура, здравоохранение

  The key to most workstation comfort guidelines is adjustability--to accommodate different body dimensions, personal workstyle preferences, and the need to change positions to avoid fatigue. A recommended working posture shows the body directly facing the keyboard and terminal, back straight, feet flat on the floor, eyes aligned at or slightly below the top of the screen, and thighs, forearms, wrists, and hands roughly parallel to the floor. Achieving this posture may require:

  • A chair with a seat pan that adjusts both vertically and fore-and-aft, an adjustable height backrest, and adjustable tilting tension
  • An adjustable height work surface or separate keyboard/mouse tray (note that many keyboard trays are too narrow to accommodate a mouse pad, leaving the mouse at an awkward height or reach on the desktop)
  • A height adjustment for the video display (a good use for those manuals you'll never read!)
  • An adjustable document holder to minimize head movement and eyestrain
  • Adjustable foot rests, arms rests, and/or wrist rests.

• 537. Concepts of democracy
  Политология

  Growing political influence of business associations and trade unions led to the emergence of the concept of corporate democracy. Corporation (from Lat. Corporatio - Association) - a collection of individuals united through guild, caste, commercial and other interests. In Western countries known corporations, including joint stock companies, trade associations and organizations of local authorities (municipalities). According to the concept of corporate democracy policy should be made with the state and the limited number of most popular and influential organizations, especially business associations and trade unions as to express the interests of the general population. This policy was called the policy of social partnership and tripartism. In many Western countries created based on representation of entrepreneurs, trade unions and the state special trypartystski bodies that define the basic parameters of socio-economic strategy of the state.content of the concept of corporate democracy is close to the concept of pluralistic democracy. The main difference between them is that pluralistic democracy involves political representation of all the diversity of social interests, and corporate democracy is a limit of only the most powerful unions. If proponents of pluralist democracy believe that the optimal impact on national policies have a varied group of competing interests, corporate supporters of democracy recognize such an impact only a limited number of organizations that do not compete, but cooperate under state control. Under such conditions, corporate acquire exclusive rights to political representation, not only members of these associations and other groups. Given that in Western countries more than half of employees are not members of trade unions, it means that they have their own political representation in corporate democracy.main feature of the Marxist notion of democracy is to consider it in close connection with the material conditions of society and its class structure. Marxism believes that the class society is an expression of democracy dictatorship economically ruling class. Under exploitative system - slave, feudal and bourgeois - served as the institutions of democracy and serve the class, in whose hands were and are the means of production: slave, feudal and bourgeois.at the same time believes that bourgeois democracy is the most developed historical type of democracy is exploitative society that put an end to absolutism and formally declared the most important rights and freedoms of individuals.highest type of political democracy, Marxism recognizes socialist or proletarian democracy. The main difference from the bourgeois socialist democracy is seen that it is the power of most of society - workers (the dictatorship of the proletariat), directed against the exploiting minority, while bourgeois democracy is the power a small minority - the owners of the means of production. Socialist democracy is based on public ownership of means of production, serving the economic basis for establishing social equality of people and their true freedom as liberation from capitalist exploitation. It is believed that unlike the bourgeois democratic socialist democracy is not only proclaims the freedom of political and socio-economic rights, but also guarantees them safe. Along with the representative democracy of socialism by using different forms of direct democracy, which finds expression in the activity of NGOs in the system of control, in practice, most public discussion of draft laws, etc.real socialism established by authority of the people do not, and absolute power of one political party, which is due to non-democratic construction of the party is turning into absolute power of party leadership. Socialist democracy denies the separation of powers. Executive authorities though popularly elected, but under strict party control [6].these, in democratic theory, there are also other concepts of democracy: market, plebistsytarna consensus (the community) and others. A separate group is elitist conception of democracy as an attempt to combine incompatible at first glance, the theory of democracy and theory of elites.concordant pluralist theory of democracy elitist conception of democracy. The political elite is defined as an independent, privileged group or set of groups directly linked to domination or pressure on the government. Predecessors of modern democracy were elitist Plato, Karleyl, Nietzsche and others. Modern classical concept of the elite were formulated in the early twentieth century. V. Pareto, G. Dep, P. Michels. The most common traits shared by elite theory are:of society into elite and mass;of political inequality as the basis of social life;of power supplies due to the "chosen minority;of social history as a set of cycles, characterized by the domination of certain types of elites., elitist concept of democracy says that the ideal of democracy in modern times (still) not implemented substantially. The people representing political power in the ruling elite [2].of the varieties of elitism adversarial model is the theory of democracy plebistsytarnoyi M. Weber. According to the logic of reasoning veberskyh representation in parliament of individual independent deputies in the development of liberal democracy is gradually being replaced by political parties. The latter, in turn, produce a single direction and establish strict discipline, becoming a bureaucratic organization. Power remains in the parties in those who regularly worked in the party apparatus and eventually concentrates in professional politicians. This party sets the machine control mechanism over their supporters, including here and members of parliament. The result is a system where parties dominate parliament and the leaders dominate the party. "This circumstance, - noted M. Weber - is of particular importance for the selection of leaders of the party. Becomes the leader of only one particular and across the head of parliament who is subject machine. In other words, the creation of such machines means domination plebistsytarnoyi democracy" [1, 218]

• 538. Congress of the United States
  Иностранные языки

  Both houses facilitate business by a committee system, and each has a fixed number of permanent committees, called standing committees, the chief function of which is considering and preparing legislation. Each house may create an indeterminate number of impermanent committees, known as select committees, for investigations of profiteering in war contracts, of election frauds, and of subversive activities. These select committees, which expire when their purposes are fulfilled, are created on the theory that their investigations are useful in framing legislation. Since 1800, Congress has found it expedient to establish a number of joint standing committees. Temporary joint committees are also established occasionally by Congress. A notable one was the Joint Congressional Committee on Labor-Management Relations, created by the Labor-Management Relations (Taft-Hartley) Act of 1947, to observe the operation of that law and to make a final report on it to Congress on January 2, 1949. Differences between the two houses of Congress over legislation, usually in the form of amendments made by one house to bills initiated by the other, are generally reconciled in conference committees consisting of managers appointed by the presiding officers of the two houses. If no agreement is reached by the conference committees, the legislation in dispute fails.

• 539. Constellations of the star sky
  Иностранные языки

  Not all constellations can be found at once in the sky as many of them consist of weak stars, and only about 30 constellations are accurately allocated with the contours and bright stars. Constellations of the Big Dipper, Pegasa, Kassiopei, Voznichego, the Lion concern them and others. The areas occupied with constellations in the sky, and number of stars in them far are not identical. By the way, we will notice that distances between visible positions of stars in the sky are measured in degrees, minutes and seconds of an arch, and the areas occupied with constellations in the sky, - in square degrees. From bright constellations the greatest on the area is the constellation of the Big Dipper occupying the space in 1280 square degrees and numbering, besides seven bright stars of a ladle, 118 more stars, visible with the naked eye. The most small constellation is in southern hemisphere of the sky and it is not visible in territory of Russia is a beautiful bright constellation of the Southern Cross, the area in 68 square degrees, consisting of five bright and weaker 25 stars. The smallest constellation of northern sky usually do not know, as it consists only of 10 weak stars visible with the naked eye; it is called as constellation of the Small Horse, has the area in 72 square degrees and adjoins southwest border of constellation of Pegasa.

• 540. Consumer behavior
  Иностранные языки

  As consumer markets become more and more competitive, marketers need to understand very thoroughly both the needs and desires of their potential consumers; which product features can be combined to satisfy these needs and desires. A better knowledge of consumer behavior can enhance the companys understanding of itself and its environment. Product bought by habit and low involvement purchases such as health supplements tend to be purchased more frequently in which provide a greater opportunity for positive reinforcement and brand loyalty. With each successive purchase of the same brand, the chances of consumers buying again increases until there is a high probability that the consumer will continue to repurchase. It is important for marketing management to identify the position of its brand in the market and as the strategic implications of this applies to every aspect of the marketing strategy. Companies selling low-involvement, habitual products such as health supplements must ensure that their products are distributed extensively. This is because the health supplements industry produces high turnover and low margin products. Widespread distribution is important as consumers seeing the products often will help remind them to buy, and it also keeping with the fact that the most consumers purchase the health supplements from a particular store because of the stores convenience. Many health supplements companies have been successful in their distribution of their products. Healtheries has climbed to number on in personal products in the supermarkets, this success is attributed to the channel switching from chemists and health food shops to super market chains. (Marketing, 1999, p.23). Many consumers buy from stores like pharmacies and health food stores because they need to seek more information about the health supplements products; therefore, it is important that the retailers can provide information for their customers. The nature of advertising and promotion also differs according to the involvement level of the purchase. In low-involvement decision process, consumers engage in very little external search before they make a purchase. Therefore it is crucial that consumers immediately think of the companys brand when they recognise a problem.

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