Информация

421. American Autoindustry in 1920's
История

Of course all this automobelization of a such huge country as USA required reorganization of a whole highway system in order to provide motorists with usable ways of transportation. In 1916 the Congress passed the Road Aid Act by which all state governments were required to have a highway department to keep state roads in order. But new Federal Highway Act of 1921 went even further by providing states with the federal help in maintaining of the roads of the federal importance (about 7% of the non-urban road mileage in each state) on a fifty-fifty matching basis. Initially about two hundred thousand miles of trunk highways received federal support. In order to justify these expenses Oregon's state government used simple and apparently painless method of taxing the sale of gasoline in an amount of one cent per gallon. Ten years later every state had gasoline tax, and the average had risen to three cents per gallon.
422. American Cinema
Разное

The illusion of movement was first noted in the early 19th century. In 1824 the English physician Peter Mark Roget published an article the persistence of vision with regard to moving objects. Many inventors put his theory to the test with pictures posted on coins that were flipped by the thumb, and with rotating disks of drawings. A particular favorite was the zoetrope, slotted revolving drum through which could be seen clowns and animals that seemed to leap. They were hand drawn on strips of paper fitted inside the drum. Other similar devices were the hemitrope, the phasmatrope, the phenakistoscope, and the praxinoscope. It is not possible to give any one person credit for having invented the motion picture. In the 1880s the Frenchman Etienne Jules Marey developed the rotating shutter with a slot to admit light, and George Eastman, of New York, developed flexible film. In 1888 Thomas Edison, of New Jersey, his phonograph for recording and playing sound on wax cylinders. He tried to combine sound with motion pictures. Edisons assistant, William Dickson, worked on the idea, and in 1889, he both appeared and spoke in a film. Edison did not turn his attention to the projected motion picture at first. The results were still not good enough, and Edison did not think that films would not have large appeal. Instead he produced and patented the kinetoscope, which ran a continuous loop of film about 15 meters (50 feet) long. Only one person could work it at a time. By 1894, hand-cranked kinetoscope appeared all over the United States and Europe. Edison demonstrated a projecting kinetoscope. The cinematograph based on Edisons kinetoscope was invented by two Frenchmen, Louis and Auguste Lumiere. This machine consisted of a portable camera and a projector. In December 1895, The Lumiere brothers organized a program of short motion pictures at a Parisian cafe.
423. American Cinema (Кино и театры Америки)
Разное

The illusion of movement was first noted in the early 19th century. In 1824 the English physician Peter Mark Roget published an article the persistence of vision with regard to moving objects. Many inventors put his theory to the test with pictures posted on coins that were flipped by the thumb, and with rotating disks of drawings. A particular favorite was the zoetrope, slotted revolving drum through which could be seen clowns and animals that seemed to leap. They were hand drawn on strips of paper fitted inside the drum. Other similar devices were the hemitrope, the phasmatrope, the phenakistoscope, and the praxinoscope. It is not possible to give any one person credit for having invented the motion picture. In the 1880s the Frenchman Etienne Jules Marey developed the rotating shutter with a slot to admit light, and George Eastman, of New York, developed flexible film. In 1888 Thomas Edison, of New Jersey, his phonograph for recording and playing sound on wax cylinders. He tried to combine sound with motion pictures. Edisons assistant, William Dickson, worked on the idea, and in 1889, he both appeared and spoke in a film. Edison did not turn his attention to the projected motion picture at first. The results were still not good enough, and Edison did not think that films would not have large appeal. Instead he produced and patented the kinetoscope, which ran a continuous loop of film about 15 meters (50 feet) long. Only one person could work it at a time. By 1894, hand-cranked kinetoscope appeared all over the United States and Europe. Edison demonstrated a projecting kinetoscope. The cinematograph based on Edisons kinetoscope was invented by two Frenchmen, Louis and Auguste Lumiere. This machine consisted of a portable camera and a projector. In December 1895, The Lumiere brothers organized a program of short motion pictures at a Parisian cafe.
424. American Federalism in 1990s
Разное

Perhaps the best recent example of such a demand for national action may be found in public safety area. There is a general perception, that high levels of criminal activity made the persons and property of the average citizen in this country unsafe. In general, however, the definition and control of criminal behavior has historically been a state and local responsibility. Our national officials sense that there is a demand for them to do something in response to state and local failures. The result is anti-crime legislation at the national level which has been proposed by the President and which is largely supported by members of Congress. While many of us doubt the effectiveness of the specific legislation, few people have seriously objected to this activity as destructive of basic fabric of our federal system.
425. American Literature: An Overwork Of The Development From The 17th To The 20th Centu-ries
Разное

In America in the early years of the 18th century, some writers, such as Cotton Mather, carried on the older traditions. His huge history and biography of Puritan New England, Magnalia Christi Americana, in 1702, and his vigorous Manuductio ad Ministerium, or introduction to the ministry, in 1726, were defenses of ancient Puritan convictions. Jonathan Edwards, initiator of the Great Awakening, a religious revival that stirred the eastern seacoast for many years, eloquently defended his burning belief in Calvinistic doctrine--of the concept that man, born totally depraved, could attain virtue and salvation only through God's grace--in his powerful sermons and most notably in the philosophical treatise Freedom of Will (1754). He supported his claims by relating them to a complex metaphysical system and by reasoning brilliantly in clear and often beautiful prose.But Mather and Edwards were defending a doomed cause. Liberal New England ministers such as John Wise and Jonathan Mayhew moved toward a less rigid religion. Samuel Sewall heralded other changes in his amusing Diary, covering the years 1673-1729. Though sincerely religious, he showed in daily records how commercial life in New England replaced rigid Puritanism with more worldly attitudes. The Journal of Mme Sara Knight comically detailed a journey that lady took to New York in 1704. She wrote vividly of what she saw and commented upon it from the standpoint of an orthodox believer, but a quality of levity in her witty writings showed that she was much less fervent than the Pilgrim founders had been. In the South, William Byrd of Virginia, an aristocratic plantation owner, contrasted sharply with gloomier predecessors. His record of a surveying trip in 1728, The History of the Dividing Line, and his account of a visit to his frontier properties in 1733, A Journey to the Land of Eden, were his chief works. Years in England, on the Continent, and among the gentry of the South had created gaiety and grace of expression, and, although a devout Anglican, Byrd was as playful as the Restoration wits whose works he clearly admired.The wrench of the American Revolution emphasized differences that had been growing between American and British political concepts. As the colonists moved to the belief that rebellion was inevitable, fought the bitter war, and worked to found the new nation's government, they were influenced by a number of very effective political writers, such as Samuel Adams and John Dickinson, both of whom favoured the colonists, and Loyalist Joseph Galloway. But two figures loomed above these--Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine.Franklin, born in 1706, had started to publish his writings in his brother's newspaper, the New England Courant, as early as 1722. This newspaper championed the cause of the "Leather Apron" man and the farmer and appealed by using easily understood language and practical arguments. The idea that common sense was a good guide was clear in both the popular Poor Richard's almanac, which Franklin edited between 1732 and 1757 and filled with prudent and witty aphorisms purportedly written by uneducated but experienced Richard Saunders, and in the author's Autobiography, written between 1771 and 1788, a record of his rise from humble circumstances that offered worldly wise suggestions for future success.Franklin's self-attained culture, deep and wide, gave substance and skill to varied articles, pamphlets, and reports that he wrote concerning the dispute with Great Britain, many of them extremely effective in stating and shaping the colonists' cause.Thomas Paine went from his native England to Philadelphia and became a magazine editor and then, about 14 months later, the most effective propagandist for the colonial cause. His pamphlet "Common Sense" (January 1776) did much to influence the colonists to declare their independence. "The American Crisis" papers (December 1776-December 1783) spurred Americans to fight on through the blackest years of the war. Based upon Paine's simple deistic beliefs, they showed the conflict as a stirring melodrama with the angelic colonists against the forces of evil. Such white and black picturings were highly effective propaganda. Another reason for Paine's success was his poetic fervour, which found expression in impassioned words and phrases long to be remembered and quoted.
426. American System of Education
Иностранные языки

To serve their citizens and help the country prosper all countries in the world without exception provide public education to children and teenagers as one of its main goals is to prepare students for productive citizenship, work and adult life. All this makes the notion of education universal while each country has its own system of education determined by its history, political system, culture, traditions and so on. The collapse of the iron curtain, modern technological developments like the Internet and ability to travel the world enable Russian students and educators to get more or less good idea of educational system of English speaking countries. The expansion of American culture, dominance of American movies on television familiarizes Russian workers and movie-goers with life of American teenagers and American school. However a survey conducted among the high school students of Lyceum 37 proved that their awareness of American educational system leaves much to be desired.
427. An Analysis of "A Portrait of the Artist as a young man" by James Joyce
Литература

Joyce remained in Dublin for some time, drinking heavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into a fight over a misunderstanding. He was picked up and dusted off by one of his father's acquaintance Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to treat his injuries. Hunter was rumored to be a Jew and to have an unfaithful wife. At that time Hunter helped a medical student Oliver St John Gogarty. Hunter later became one of the models for Leopold Bloom, the main character of Ulysses, and Gogarty was the one who became the prototype for the character Buck Mulligan in Ulysses. After staying in Gogarty's Martello Tower for six nights, Joyce left in the middle of the night because of a quarrel which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol at some pans hanging directly over Joyce's bed. He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora. (www.just-facts.info)and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to Zurich, where he worked as a teacher of English at the Berlitz Language School, then director of the school sent him to Trieste, which was a part of Austria-Hungary until World War I (today part of Italy). With the help of Almidano Artifoni, the director of the Trieste Berlitz School, he secured a teaching position in Pola, also a part of Austria-Hungary (today part of Croatia). He stayed there, teaching English mainly to Austro-Hungarian naval officers until the Austrians expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English there. He would remain in Trieste for the next ten years. Later that year Nora gave a birth to their first child, George. Joyce invited his brother, Stanislaus, and secured him a teaching position at the school. Stanislaus and James had strained relations throughout the time they lived together in Trieste because of James's drinking habits and frivolity with money.became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to Rome in late 1906, having secured employment in a bank. He intensely disliked Rome and moved back to Trieste. His daughter Lucia was born in the summer of the same year.returned to Dublin in mid-1909 with George, in order to visit his father and work on getting Dubliners published. He visited Nora's family in Galway. He also launched Ireland's first cinema, the Volta Cinematograph. While preparing to return to Trieste he decided to take one of his sisters, Eva, back with him to help Nora run the home. He spent only a month in Trieste and went back to Dublin. His venture was successful and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen. Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, but Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent.returned to Dublin again in mid-1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher George Roberts over the publication of Dubliners. His trip was once again fruitless. After this trip he never again came closer to Dublin than London.of his students in Trieste was Ettore Schmitz. They became lasting friends and mutual critics. While living in Trieste, Joyce found eye problems for the first time that ultimately required over a dozen surgeries.skill at borrowing money saved him from indigence. His income came partially from his position at the Berlitz School and partially from teaching private students.1915he moved to Zurich. There, he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought while writing Ulysses. It was also here that he got acquainted with the English feminist and publisher Harriet Shaw Weaver, who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching in order to focus on his writing. In Zurich he published A Portrait of the Artist as a Young man.during the war was a home for exiles and artists from the whole Europe, and its bohemian, multilingual atmosphere suited him. Nevertheless, after four years he became restless, and after the war he returned to Trieste. His relations with his brother became more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joyce )set himself in Paris. A further grant from Miss Shaw Weaver meant he could devote himself full-time to writing again. During that time, Joyce's eyes began to give him more and more problems. He was treated by Dr. Louis Borsch in Paris, receiving nine surgeries from him until Borsch's death in 1929. Throughout the 1930s he frequently traveled to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who suffered from schizophrenia. Lucia was analyzed by Carl Jung at the time, who after reading Ulysses, concluded that her father had schizophrenia too. Jung said she and her father were two people sinking in a river, except that he was diving and she was falling.Paris, Maria and Eugene Jolas nursed Joyce during his long years of writing. He returned to Zurich in late 1940, fleeing the Nazi occupation of France.11 January 1941, he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he had a relapse the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on 13 January 1941, and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still on their way when he died 15 minutes later. He is buried in the Fluntern Cemetery within earshot of the lions in the Zurich Zoo.Irish government subsequently declined Nora's offer to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains. Nora, whom Joyce had finally married in London in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried now by his side, as is their son George.
428. An English Speaking Country - New Zealand
Иностранные языки

New Zealand stretches 1600 km from north to south it consists of two large islands around which are scattered a number of smaller islands, plus a few far-flung islands hundreds of km away. The North Island (115,000 sq km) and the South Island (151,000 sq km) are the two major land masses. A notable feature of New Zealand's geography is the country's great number of rivers. The Waikato River in the North Island is New Zealand's longest river, measuring in at 425 km. New Zealand also has a number of beautiful lakes; Lake Taupo is the largest and lakes Waikaremoana and Wanaka are two of the most beautiful. As is the case for most Pacific islands, New Zealand's native flora & fauna are, for the most part, not found anywhere else in the world. And, like other Pacific islands, NZ's native ecosystem has been dramatically affected and changed by plants and animals brought by settlers, mostly in the last 200 years.
429. Analysis of Sufism Through Art of Sufi Poetry
Разное

Sufis way of life does not exhibit the most accurate instance of severe asceticism and a practice of physical rigors. The perfect Sufi lives in accordance with Quran and “never forgets God for a single moment.”(Abu Said, Ch.1, p.40) The essence of the mystics life corresponds to constant remembrance of God. Islamic mystics are aware of the true value and function of everything in the world; thus they accentuate Reality as the major concern of a human life. They advocate moderation in food and physical comforts as a profound condition to liberate hearts and minds from everything that is peripheral and transitory, and stay focused on God (Al-Ghazzali, Ch.1, p.37.) The eternal path of Sufis commences with their approach to daily life. Soul remains the primary tool in search of Reality. Body serves only as means of ensuring physical health, and the care for it is provided as to a camel in a caravan without adoration and contemplation, for camel is merely a device to reach the destination (al-Ghazzali, Ch.2, p.47.) Sufis destination is the unity with God, the truth and knowledge exposed when the “veil” is elevated. Muslim mystics teach that nothing is perpetual and everything is perishable in the world (Attar, Ch.6, p.80.) Everything has a beginning, a purpose and an end, and after completing the cycle returns to its original pattern. “The end is maturity, and the goal is freedom. The circle is complete. Completing the circle of existence is freedom” (Nasaft, Ch.2, p.53.)
430. Analysis of Sufism Through Art of Sufi Poetry.
Разное

Sufis way of life does not exhibit the most accurate instance of severe asceticism and a practice of physical rigors. The perfect Sufi lives in accordance with Quran and “never forgets God for a single moment.”(Abu Said, Ch.1, p.40) The essence of the mystics life corresponds to constant remembrance of God. Islamic mystics are aware of the true value and function of everything in the world; thus they accentuate Reality as the major concern of a human life. They advocate moderation in food and physical comforts as a profound condition to liberate hearts and minds from everything that is peripheral and transitory, and stay focused on God (Al-Ghazzali, Ch.1, p.37.) The eternal path of Sufis commences with their approach to daily life. Soul remains the primary tool in search of Reality. Body serves only as means of ensuring physical health, and the care for it is provided as to a camel in a caravan without adoration and contemplation, for camel is merely a device to reach the destination (al-Ghazzali, Ch.2, p.47.) Sufis destination is the unity with God, the truth and knowledge exposed when the “veil” is elevated. Muslim mystics teach that nothing is perpetual and everything is perishable in the world (Attar, Ch.6, p.80.) Everything has a beginning, a purpose and an end, and after completing the cycle returns to its original pattern. “The end is maturity, and the goal is freedom. The circle is complete. Completing the circle of existence is freedom” (Nasaft, Ch.2, p.53.)
431. Analysis: Atheism worldwide in decline
Разное

A few years ago, European scientists sniggered when studies in the United States -- for example, at Harvard and Duke universities -- showed a correlation between faith, prayer and recovery from illness. Now 1,200 studies at research centers around the world have come to similar conclusions, according to "Psychologie Heute," a German journal, citing, for example, the marked improvement of multiple sclerosis patients in Germany's Ruhr District do to "spiritual resources."
432. Andrew Lloyd Webber "Cats"
История

…Я был очень рад, так как впервые работал с настоящим оркестром. Я не говорю, что театральный оркестр был плох, но ЭТОТ оркестр был больше, "Коты" от него выигрывают. Я был в восторге - это открывало перед нами новые возможности. Мы переписали всю музыку - от начала до конца. В некоторых местах мы использовали больше инструментов. Первая театральная постановка "Кошек" была обыграна с помощью 16-ти инструментов, а теперь у нас их было 90. Музыке 16 лет, мы смогли переделать ее с помощью современных электронных музыкальных инструментов. Особенность "Котов" в том, что они написаны в разных музыкальных стилях. Мы подчеркнули то, что надо было оттенить и спрятали то, что надо было спрятать.
433. Antitrast law
Юриспруденция, право, государство

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law>"trust" had a technical legal meaning, the word was commonly used to denote big business, especially a large, growing manufacturing conglomerate of the sort that suddenly emerged in great numbers in the 1880s and 1890s. The Interstate Commerce Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act> of 1887 began a shift towards federal rather than state regulation of big business.<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law> It was followed by the Sherman Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act> of 1890, the Clayton Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act> and the Federal Trade Commission Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act> of 1914, the Robinson-Patman Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson-Patman_Act> of 1936, and the Celler-Kefauver Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celler-Kefauver_Act> of 1950., at this time hundreds of small short-line railroads were being bought up and consolidated into giant systems. (Separate laws and policies emerged regarding railroads and financial concerns such as banks and insurance companies.) Advocates of strong antitrust laws argued the American economy to be successful requires free competition and the opportunity for individual Americans to build their own businesses. As Senator John Sherman <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sherman_(politician)> put it, "If we will not endure a king as a political power we should not endure a king over the production, transportation, and sale of any of the necessaries of life." Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act> almost unanimously in 1890, and it remains the core of antitrust policy. The Act makes it illegal to try to restrain trade or to form a monopoly. It gives the Justice Department the mandate to go to federal court for orders to stop illegal behavior or to impose remedies. officials during the Progressive Era <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era> put passing and enforcing strong antitrust high on their agenda. President Theodore Roosevelt <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt>sued 45 companies under the Sherman Act, while William Howard Taft <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft> sued 75. In 1902, Roosevelt stopped the formation of theNorthern Securities Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company>, which threatened to monopolize transportation in the Northwest (see Northern Securities Co. v. United States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Securities_Co._v._United_States>).of the more well known trusts was the Standard Oil Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Oil>; John D. Rockefeller <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller> in the 1870s and 1880s had used economic threats against competitors and secret rebate deals with railroads to build what was called a monopoly in the oil business, though some minor competitors remained in business. In 1911 the Supreme Court agreed that in recent years (1900-1904) Standard had violated the Sherman Act (see Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._of_New_Jersey_v._United_States>). It broke the monopoly into three dozen separate companies that competed with one another, including Standard Oil of New Jersey (later known as Exxon and now ExxonMobil <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil>), Standard Oil of Indiana (Amoco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco>), Standard Oil Company of New York (Mobil <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobil>, again, later merged with Exxon to form ExxonMobil), of California (Chevron <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation>), and so on. In approving the breakup the Supreme Court added the "rule of reason": not all big companies, and not all monopolies, are evil; and the courts (not the executive branch) are to make that decision. To be harmful, a trust had to somehow damage the economic environment of its competitors.States Steel Corporation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Steel>, which was much larger than Standard Oil, won its antitrust suit in 1920 despite never having delivered the benefits to consumers that Standard Oil did. In fact it lobbied for tariff protection that reduced competition, and so contending that it was one of the "good trusts" that benefited the economy is somewhat doubtful. Likewise International Harvester <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Harvester> survived its court test, while other trusts were broken up in tobacco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco>, meatpacking, and bathtub fixtures. Over the years hundreds of executives of competing companies who met together illegally to fix prices went to federal prison.problem some perceived with the Sherman Act was that it was not entirely clear what practices were prohibited, leading to businessmen not knowing what they were permitted to do, and government antitrust authorities not sure what business practices they could challenge. In the words of one critic, Isabel Paterson <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Paterson>, "As freak legislation, the antitrust laws stand alone. Nobody knows what it is they forbid." In 1914 Congress passed the Clayton Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Act>, which prohibited specific business actions (such as price discrimination <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_discrimination> anything <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tying>) if they substantially lessened competition. At the same time Congress established the Federal Trade Commission <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission> (FTC), whose legal and business experts could force business to agree to "consent decrees <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_decree>", which provided an alternative mechanism to police antitrust.hostility to big business began to decrease after the Progressive Era. For example, Ford Motor Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company> dominated auto manufacturing, built millions of cheap cars that put America on wheels, and at the same time lowered prices, raised wages, and promoted manufacturing efficiency. Ford became as much of a popular hero as Rockefeller had been a villain. Welfare capitalism <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_capitalism> made large companies an attractive place to work; new career paths opened up in middle management; local suppliers discovered that big corporations were big purchasers. Talk of trust busting faded away. Under the leadership of Herbert Hoover <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hoover>, the government in the 1920s promoted business cooperation, fostered the creation of self-policing trade associations, and made the FTC an ally of "respectable business".the New Deal, likewise, attempts were made to stop cutthroat competition <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutthroat_competition>, attempts that appeared very similar to cartelization, which would be illegal under antitrust laws if attempted by someone other than government. The National Industrial Recovery Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act> (NIRA) was a short-lived program in 1933-35 designed to strengthen trade associations, and raise prices, profits and wages at the same time. The Robinson-Patman Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson-Patman_Act> of 1936 sought to protect local retailers against the onslaught of the more efficient chain stores, by making it illegal to discount prices. To control big business the New Deal policymakers preferred federal and state regulation-controlling the rates and telephone services provided by American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T>), for example-and by building up countervailing power in the form of labor unions.the 1970s fears of "cutthroat" competition had been displaced by confidence that a fully competitive marketplace produced fair returns to everyone. The fear was that monopoly made for higher prices, less production, inefficiency and less prosperity for all. As unions faded in strength, the government paid much more attention to the damages that unfair competition could cause to consumers, especially in terms of higher prices, poorer service, and restricted choice. In 1982 the Reagan administration used the Sherman Act to break up AT&T <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T> into one long-distance company and seven regional "Baby Bells <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Bell_Operating_Company>", arguing that competition should replace monopoly for the benefit of consumers and the economy as a whole. The pace of business takeovers quickened in the 1990s, but whenever one large corporation sought to acquire another, it first had to obtain the approval of either the FTC or the Justice Department. Often the government demanded that certain subsidiaries be sold so that the new company would not monopolize a particular geographical market.1999 a coalition of 19 states and the federal Justice Department sued Microsoft <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft>. A highly publicized trial found that Microsoft had strong-armed many companies in an attempt to prevent competition from the Netscape <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape> browser. In 2000 the trial court ordered Microsoft split in two to punish it, and prevent it from future misbehavior, however the Court of Appeals reversed the decision, removed the judge from the case for improperly discussing the case while it was still pending with the media. With the case in front of a new judge, Microsoft and the government settled, with the government dropping the case in return for Microsoft agreeing to cease many of the practices the government challenged. In his defense, CEO Bill Gates <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates> argued that Microsoft always worked on behalf of the consumer and that splitting the company would diminish efficiency and slow the pace of software development.">"We have here the problem of bigness. Its lesson should by now have been burned into our memory by Brandeis. The Curse of Bigness shows how size can become a menace--both industrial and social. It can be an industrial menace because it creates gross inequalities against existing or putative competitors. It can be a social menace...In final analysis, size in steel is the measure of the power of a handful of men over our economy...The philosophy of the Sherman Act is that it should not exist...Industrial power should be decentralized. It should be scattered into many hands so that the fortunes of the people will not be dependent on the whim or caprice, the political prejudices, the emotional stability of a few self-appointed men...That is the philosophy and the command of the Sherman Act. It is founded on a theory of hostility to the concentration in private hands of power so great that only a government of the people should have it." Dissenting opinion of Justice Douglas in United States v. Columbia Steel Co. <http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Columbia_Steel_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law>"trust" had a technical legal meaning, the word was commonly used to denote big business, especially a large, growing manufacturing conglomerate of the sort that suddenly emerged in great numbers in the 1880s and 1890s. The Interstate Commerce Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act> of 1887 began a shift towards federal rather than state regulation of big business.<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law> It was followed by the Sherman Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act> of 1890, the Clayton Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act> and the Federal Trade Commission Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act> of 1914, the Robinson-Patman Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson-Patman_Act> of 1936, and the Celler-Kefauver Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celler-Kefauver_Act> of 1950., at this time hundreds of small short-line railroads were being bought up and consolidated into giant systems. (Separate laws and policies emerged regarding railroads and financial concerns such as banks and insurance companies.) Advocates of strong antitrust laws argued the American economy to be successful requires free competition and the opportunity for individual Americans to build their own businesses. As Senator John Sherman <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Sherman_(politician)> put it, "If we will not endure a king as a political power we should not endure a king over the production, transportation, and sale of any of the necessaries of life." Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act> almost unanimously in 1890, and it remains the core of antitrust policy. The Act makes it illegal to try to restrain trade or to form a monopoly. It gives the Justice Department the mandate to go to federal court for orders to stop illegal behavior or to impose remedies. officials during the Progressive Era <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Era> put passing and enforcing strong antitrust high on their agenda. President Theodore Roosevelt <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt>sued 45 companies under the Sherman Act, while William Howard Taft <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft> sued 75. In 1902, Roosevelt stopped the formation of theNorthern Securities Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Securities_Company>, which threatened to monopolize transportation in the Northwest (see Northern Securities Co. v. United States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Securities_Co._v._United_States>).of the more well known trusts was the Standard Oil Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Oil>; John D. Rockefeller <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_D._Rockefeller> in the 1870s and 1880s had used economic threats against competitors and secret rebate deals with railroads to build what was called a monopoly in the oil business, though some minor competitors remained in business. In 1911 the Supreme Court agreed that in recent years (1900-1904) Standard had violated the Sherman Act (see Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._of_New_Jersey_v._United_States>). It broke the monopoly into three dozen separate companies that competed with one another, including Standard Oil of New Jersey (later known as Exxon and now ExxonMobil <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobil>), Standard Oil of Indiana (Amoco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco>), Standard Oil Company of New York (Mobil <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobil>, again, later merged with Exxon to form ExxonMobil), of California (Chevron <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporation>), and so on. In approving the breakup the Supreme Court added the "rule of reason": not all big companies, and not all monopolies, are evil; and the courts (not the executive branch) are to make that decision. To be harmful, a trust had to somehow damage the economic environment of its competitors.States Steel Corporation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Steel>, which was much larger than Standard Oil, won its antitrust suit in 1920 despite never having delivered the benefits to consumers that Standard Oil did. In fact it lobbied for tariff protection that reduced competition, and so contending that it was one of the "good trusts" that benefited the economy is somewhat doubtful. Likewise International Harvester <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Harvester> survived its court test, while other trusts were broken up in tobacco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco>, meatpacking, and bathtub fixtures. Over the years hundreds of executives of competing companies who met together illegally to fix prices went to federal prison.problem some perceived with the Sherman Act was that it was not entirely clear what practices were prohibited, leading to businessmen not knowing what they were permitted to do, and government antitrust authorities not sure what business practices they could challenge. In the words of one critic, Isabel Paterson <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabel_Paterson>, "As freak legislation, the antitrust laws stand alone. Nobody knows what it is they forbid." In 1914 Congress passed the Clayton Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clayton_Act>, which prohibited specific business actions (such as price discrimination <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_discrimination> anything <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tying>) if they substantially lessened competition. At the same time Congress established the Federal Trade Commission <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission> (FTC), whose legal and business experts could force business to agree to "consent decrees <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent_decree>", which provided an alternative mechanism to police antitrust.hostility to big business began to decrease after the Progressive Era. For example, Ford Motor Company <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company> dominated auto manufacturing, built millions of cheap cars that put America on wheels, and at the same time lowered prices, raised wages, and promoted manufacturing efficiency. Ford became as much of a popular hero as Rockefeller had been a villain. Welfare capitalism <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare_capitalism> made large companies an attractive place to work; new career paths opened up in middle management; local suppliers discovered that big corporations were big purchasers. Talk of trust busting faded away. Under the leadership of Herbert Hoover <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Hoover>, the government in the 1920s promoted business cooperation, fostered the creation of self-policing trade associations, and made the FTC an ally of "respectable business".the New Deal, likewise, attempts were made to stop cutthroat competition <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutthroat_competition>, attempts that appeared very similar to cartelization, which would be illegal under antitrust laws if attempted by someone other than government. The National Industrial Recovery Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act> (NIRA) was a short-lived program in 1933-35 designed to strengthen trade associations, and raise prices, profits and wages at the same time. The Robinson-Patman Act <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson-Patman_Act> of 1936 sought to protect local retailers against the onslaught of the more efficient chain stores, by making it illegal to discount prices. To control big business the New Deal policymakers preferred federal and state regulation-controlling the rates and telephone services provided by American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T>), for example-and by building up countervailing power in the form of labor unions.the 1970s fears of "cutthroat" competition had been displaced by confidence that a fully competitive marketplace produced fair returns to everyone. The fear was that monopoly made for higher prices, less production, inefficiency and less prosperity for all. As unions faded in strength, the government paid much more attention to the damages that unfair competition could cause to consumers, especially in terms of higher prices, poorer service, and restricted choice. In 1982 the Reagan administration used the Sherman Act to break up AT&T <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T> into one long-distance company and seven regional "Baby Bells <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Bell_Operating_Company>", arguing that competition should replace monopoly for the benefit of consumers and the economy as a whole. The pace of business takeovers quickened in the 1990s, but whenever one large corporation sought to acquire another, it first had to obtain the approval of either the FTC or the Justice Department. Often the government demanded that certain subsidiaries be sold so that the new company would not monopolize a particular geographical market.1999 a coalition of 19 states and the federal Justice Department sued Microsoft <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft>. A highly publicized trial found that Microsoft had strong-armed many companies in an attempt to prevent competition from the Netscape <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape> browser. In 2000 the trial court ordered Microsoft split in two to punish it, and prevent it from future misbehavior, however the Court of Appeals reversed the decision, removed the judge from the case for improperly discussing the case while it was still pending with the media. With the case in front of a new judge, Microsoft and the government settled, with the government dropping the case in return for Microsoft agreeing to cease many of the practices the government challenged. In his defense, CEO Bill Gates <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Gates> argued that Microsoft always worked on behalf of the consumer and that splitting the company would diminish efficiency and slow the pace of software development.
434. Anwendung eines neuranalen Netzwrkes fuer die Erkennung der Zeit-Frequenz Repraesentationen
Разное

Es its gut bekannt, dass die instationaere Regime der meschanischen Einrichtung (z.B. Anlauf, Ablauf von rotierenden Maschinen) viel mehr informativ als stationaere sind, also viel mehr information ueber technischen Zustand der Einrichtung tragen. Es ist aber problematisch, diese Regime mit Hilfe konventionele Methoden (z.B. FFT) zu untersuchen, so verwendet man dafuer Zeit-Frequenz Repraesentationen, solche wie z.B. Geglaettete Wigner Distribution (SWD), die die Veraenderung der Energieverteilung im Frequenzbereich mit der Zeit beschreiben, und deren Parametern angepasst sein koennen, die interessierende Signaleigenschaften (momentan Amplituden der Signalkomponenten) mit der vorgegebenen Genauigkeit zu bewerten [1]. Diese Zeit-Frequenz Repraesentationen werden als 2-dimensionale farben Abbildungen - Sonogrammen - grafisch dargestellt.
435. Apaбcкaя и eвpeйcкaя филocoфия
Философия

Развитие арабской философии сравнимо с развитием христианской схоластики и в том, что как реакция на интеллектуализирование религии под влиянием аристотелизма здесь тоже образуется мистическое направление. Его представителем был интеллектуальный скептик, последователь суфитского мистицизма и аскетизма аль-Газали (лат. Альгазель, 1059-1111), современник Ансельма, на поколений старше Бернара из Клерво, имевшего схожие с аль-Газали взгляды. Главный интерес аль-Газали сосредоточивался на вере, которую он резко противопоставлял науке и философии. Свой скептический подход он демонстрировал в трактате "Опровержение философов", против которого энергично выступал Аверроэс. В этом трактате аль-Газали показывает вредное для веры влияние аристотелевских воззрении на науку и философию. Он отверг и принцип причинности, проявляющийся в мире естественным образом. Огонь не может быть причиной пожара, ибо является мертвым телом, которое ничего не может сделать; пожар вызвал бог, а огонь был лишь временным средством, но не причиной. Философия должна способствовать религии. Ориентация на мистику проходит через все его произведения. В познании, согласно его представлениям, позитивным является мистическое слияние с богом и откровение. Самыми худшими заблуждениями философов он считал отрицание сотворения мира богом, его всемогущества и справедливости, божественного провидения.
436. API Spying
Компьютеры, программирование

Вы классно знаете ассемблер, и считаете, что это пара пустяков? Возможно, вы не учли, что код функций будет расположен в произвольном месте адресного пространства и что (забегая вперёд; но вы-то это всё должны понимать) функции не могут модифицировать стек и регистры. Если и это для вас не проблема, то, во-первых, примите моё искреннее восхищение (без шуток!), во-вторых, прочитайте следующий пункт. :)Автоматическая генерация подразумевает выделение памяти для кода функций, а, так как их может быть много, желательно чтобы функции были короткими. Поэтому, опять же, хорошо бы подсчёт статистики взял на себя кто-то другой.
437. Application of angstorm level resolution in nanotechnology
Физика

Lооkіng bаck, thе bеgіnnіngs оf mіcrоscоpy dаtе bаck tо thе tіmе оf Rоbеrt Hооkе whеrе hе usеd а pіеcе оf glаss lеns fоr mаgnіfy оf hіs spеcіmеn by bеndіng thе rаy оf lіght. Іt wаs еvеn а pаrt оf hіs bооk Mіcrоgrаphіа аnd thе fіrst оptіcаl mіcrоscоpе wаs dеvеlоpеd. Thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf thе hіgh pоwеrеd mіcrоscоpеs wаs duе tо mаns nееd tо furthеr mаgnіfy аnd sее whаt оur nаkеd еyе cаn pеrcеіvе. Mаgnіfyіng аn оbjеct іs lіmіtеd tо bеіng аblе tо dіstіnguіsh оnе pоіnt frоm thе оthеr, а sіmplе dеfіnіtіоn оf rеsоlutіоn. Thе dіstаncе оf twо pоіnts оf whіch bеіng sеpаrаtе dіstіnct еntіtіеs іs thе lіmіt оf rеsоlutіоn [1]. Thе dеvеlоpmеnt wаs bаsеd оn thе еxhаustеd pоtеntіаl оf thе tооls. Hіstоrіcаlly, thе prоblеms wіth rеsоlutіоn аs wеll аs mаіn functіоn оf thе tооl wеrе thе mаіn fаctоr fоr thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf а nеw mіcrоscоpе. Rеsоlutіоn hаd bееn thе fоrеmоst cоncеrn fоr thе dеvеlоpmеnt оf thе hіgh pоwеrеd mіcrоscоpе up tо thе еlеctrоn mіcrоscоpе lеvеl. Thе оptіcаl mіcrоscоpе sеrvеd аs thе mоdеl fоr thе dеsіgn аnd cоncеpt оf thе succееdіng mіcrоscоpеs. Thе wаvе nаturе оf lіght wаs thе mаіn bаckbоnе оf rеsоlutіоn аs іt іs rеlаtеd tо wаvеlеngth by thе Аbbеs еquаtіоn [1]:
438. Aral Sea - What Was and What Is
Иностранные языки
439. Archimedes of Syracuse
Разное

... when Archimedes began to ply his engines, he at once shot against the land forces all sorts of missile weapons, and immense masses of stone that came down with incredible noise and violence; against which no man could stand; for they knocked down those upon whom they fell in heaps, breaking all their ranks and files. In the meantime huge poles thrust out from the walls over the ships and sunk some by great weights which they let down from on high upon them; others they lifted up into the air by an iron hand or beak like a crane's beak and, when they had drawn them up by the prow, and set them on end upon the poop, they plunged them to the bottom of the sea; or else the ships, drawn by engines within, and whirled about, were dashed against steep rocks that stood jutting out under the walls, with great destruction of the soldiers that were aboard them. A ship was frequently lifted up to a great height in the air (a dreadful thing to behold), and was rolled to and fro, and kept swinging, until the mariners were all thrown out, when at length it was dashed against the rocks, or let fall.
440. Argentina
География

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