Дипломная работа

• 101. Oценкa бизнеca при cлиянии нa примере OAO "МТC"
  Экономика

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• 102. Parable thinking in W. Faulner's novel "A fable"
  Иностранные языки

   

  1. Arendt H. The Human Condition / H. Arendt.- New York: Doubleday Anchor, 1959. - 156 p.
  2. Barth J., Robert. A Rereading of Faulkners A Fable/ J. R. Barth.- America, 1954. - 79 p.
  3. Bergson, H. The Two Sources of Morality and Religion/ H. Bergson.- New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1935. - 289 p.
  4. Bernard, R. Book Reworks/ R. Bernard. - Arizona Quarterly, 1954.- P. 361-363.
  5. Bertman, M.A. On Faulkner's Thucydidean Aesthetics/ - University of Illinois Press. - 1973. - Vol. 7, No. 3 - Journal of Aesthetic Education. - P. 99-101
  6. Brendan, G. Fifth Gospel/ G. Brendan. - New York: The New Yorker,1954. - P. 70-71.
  7. Bouvard, L. Conversation with William Faulkner/ L. Bouvard.- New York: Modern Fiction Studies,1959-1960. - P. 361-364.
  8. Brumm, U. Wilderness and Civilization: A Note on Waggoner/ U. Brumm. - New York: From Jefferson to the World, 1954.- 229 p.
  9. Carter, T.H. Dramatization of an Enigma/ T.H. Carter. - New York: Western Rework, 1955. - P. 147-148.
  10. Collins, C. War and Peace and Mr. Faulkner/ C. Collins. - New York: Times Book Rework, 1954. -P. 13.
  11. Cowley, M. Faulkner's Powerful New Novel/ M. Cowley. - New York: Herald Tribune Books, 1954. - 256 p.
  12. Crossan, J.D. Parable, Allegory and Paradox / J.D. Crossan. - Boston: Accent, 1976. 277 p.
  13. Dillistone, F.W. The Novelist and the Passion Story/ F. W. Dillistone. - London: Collins Clear Types Press, 1960. - 195 p.
  14. Faulkner, W. A Fable/ W. Faulkner. - New York: Random House, 1954. - 384 p.
  15. Fiedler, L. Stone Grotesques/ L. Fiedler. - New York: The New Republic, 1954. - P. 18-19
  16. Flint, R.W. What Price Glory? / R. W. Flint. - New York: Random House, 1955. - P. 602-606.
  17. Gardiner, H.C. William Faulkner's 'A Fable/ H. C. Gardiner. - New York: The Macmillan Company, 1954. - 502 p.
  18. Hafley, J. Faulkner's 'A Fable: Dream and Transfiguration/ J. Hafley. - Boston: Accent, 1956. - P. 3-14.
  19. Hartt, T. Some Reflections on Faulkner's Fable/ T. Hartt. - Boston: Religion in Life, 1955. - P. 601-607.
  20. Harvey, V.A. A Handbook of Literary Terms/ V. A. Harvey. - New York: The Macmillan Company, 1964. - 170 p.
  21. Hoffman, F.J. William Faulkner: Three Decades of Criticism/ F. J. Hoffman. - New York: Brace and World, 1963. - 365 p.
  22. Howe, I. Thirteen Who Mutinied: Faulkners First World War/ I. Howe. - New York: The Reporter, 1954. - P. 43-45
  23. Howe, I. William Faulkner: A Critical Study / I. Howe. - New York: Vintage Books, 1962. - 239 p.
  24. Hunt, J.W. William Faulkner: Art in Theological Tension/ J.W. Hunt. - Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1965. - 345 p.
  25. Kenner, H. Book Reworks/ H. Kenner. - Winchester: Shenandoah, 1955. - P. 44-53.
  26. King, R.A. Everymans Warfare: A Study of Faulkner's Fable/ R.A. King. - New York: Modern Fiction Studies, 1956. - P. 132-138.
  27. Kohler, D.A Fable: The Novel as Myth/ D. Kohler. - Boston: College of English, 1955. -P. 471-478.
  28. Liddell Hart, B.H. The Real War: 1914-1918/ B.H. Liddell Hart. - Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1930. - 301 p.
  29. Lytle, A. The Son of Man: He Will Prevail/ A. Lytle. - Boston: The Sewanee Rework, 1955. -P. 114-137.
  30. Mercier, V.A Search for Universality that Led too Far from Home/ V. Mercier. - Boston: Commonweal, 1954. - P. 443-444.
  31. Nygren, A. Eros and Agape: A Handbook of Christian Theology/ A. Nygren. - Cleveland, Ohio: World Publising Company, 1958. - P. 96-101.
  32. Pickerel, P. Outstanding Novels/ P. Pickerel. - Yale, 1954. - P. 9-18.
  33. Podhoretz, N. William Faulkner and the Problem of War/ N. Podhoretz. - New York: The Reporter, 1954. - P. 227-232.
  34. Rice, P.B. Faulkner's Crucifixion: Three Decades of Criticism/ P.B. Rice. - New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963. - 202 p.
  35. Sandeen, E. William Faulkner: His Legend and His Fable. Rework of Politics/ E. Sandeen. - New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963. - P. 47-68.
  36. Schorer, M. Technique as Discovery. The World We Imagine/ M. Schorer. - New York: Farrer, Straus and Giroux, 1968. - 300 p.
  37. Sowder, W. Faulkner and Existentialism: A Note on the Generalissimo/ W. Sowder. - New York: Farrer, Straus and Giroux, 1968. - P. 163-167.
  38. Straumann, H. An American Interpretation of Existence: Faulkner's A Fable/ H. Straumann. - New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1963. - P. 484-515.
  39. Taylor, W.F. William Faulkner: The Faulkner Fable. American Scholar/ W. F. Taylor. - New York: Farrer, Straus and Giroux, 1957. - P. 471-477.
  40. Thompson, L. Willim Faulkner: An Introduction and Interpretation/ L. Thompson. - New York, 1963. - P. 13.
  41. Waggoner, H.H. William Faulkners Passion Week of the Heart/ H. H. Waggoner . - New York: Association Press, 1957. -P. 306-323.
  42. Waggoner, H.H. William Faulkner: From Jefferson to the World / H. H. Waggoner . - Lexington: Lexington University Press, 1957. -229 p.
  43. Wilder, A. Theology and Modern Literature/ A. Wilder. - Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1958. - P. 113-131.
  44. Кеба А. Андрей Платонов и мировая литература ХХ века: Типологические связи/ А. Кеба К.-П.: Абетка НОВА, 2001. 505 c.
  45. Хитарова Т.А. Архетипические образы Верха и Низа в романе с притчевым началом (А. Платонов, А. Мердок, У. Голдинг): Автореф. дис. канд. филол. наук / Хитарова Татьяна Александровна. Красн., 2003. 29 с.
  46. Энциклопедический словарь юного литературоведа/ [Под ред. В.И. Новикова] М.: Педагогика, 1987. 416 с.

• 103. Parallel constructions and their Translation
  Литература

• 104. Peculiarities of British and American variants in the English Language
  Иностранные языки

  America has given the English lexicon many thousands of words, meanings, and phrases. Several thousand are now used in English as spoken internationally; others, however, died within a few years of their creation.of an American lexiconprocess of coining new lexical items started as soon as the colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from the Native American languages. Examples of such names are opossum, raccoon, squash and moose (from Algonquian). Other Native American loanwords, such as wigwam or moccasin, describe artificial objects in common use among Native Americans. The languages of the other colonizing nations also added to the American vocabulary; for instance, cookie, cruller, stoop, and pit (of a fruit) from Dutch; levee, portage ("carrying of boats or goods") and (probably) gopher from French; barbecue, stevedore, and rodeo from Spanish.the earliest and most notable regular "English" additions to the American vocabulary, dating from the early days of colonization through the early 19th century, are terms describing the features of the North American landscape; for instance, run, branch, fork, snag, bluff, gulch, neck (of the woods), barrens, bottomland, notch, knob, riffle, rapids, watergap, cutoff, trail, timberline and divide. Already existing words such as creek, slough, sleet and (in later use) watershed received new meanings that were unknown in England.noteworthy American toponyms are found among loanwords; for example, prairie, butte (French); bayou (Choctaw via Louisiana French); coulee (Canadian French, but used also in Louisiana with a different meaning); canyon, mesa, arroyo (Spanish); vlei, kill (Dutch, Hudson Valley).word corn, used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the plant Zea mays, the most important crop in the U.S., originally named Indian corn by the earliest settlers; wheat, rye, barley, oats, etc. came to be collectively referred to as grain (or breadstuffs). Other notable farm related vocabulary additions were the new meanings assumed by barn (not only a building for hay and grain storage, but also for housing livestock) and team (not just the horses, but also the vehicle along with them), as well as, in various periods, the terms range, (corn) crib, truck, elevator, sharecropping and feedlot., later applied to a house style, derives from Mexican Spanish; most Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812, with the opening of the West. Among these are, other than toponyms, chaps (from chaparreras), plaza, lasso, bronco, buckaroo, rodeo; examples of "English" additions from the cowboy era are bad man, maverick, chuck ("food") and Boot Hill; from the California Gold Rush came such idioms as hit pay dirt or strike it rich. The word blizzard probably originated in the West. A couple of notable late 18th century additions are the verb belittle and the noun bid, both first used in writing by Thomas Jefferson.the new continent developed new forms of dwelling, and hence a large inventory of words designating real estate concepts (land office, lot, outlands, waterfront, the verbs locate and relocate, betterment, addition, subdivision), types of property (log cabin, adobe in the 18th century; frame house, apartment, tenement house, shack, shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium, townhouse, split-level, mobile home, multi-family in the 20th century), and parts thereof (driveway, breezeway, backyard, dooryard; clapboard, siding, trim, baseboard; stoop (from Dutch), family room, den; and, in recent years, HVAC, central air, walkout basement).since the American Revolution, a great number of terms connected with the U.S. political institutions have entered the language; examples are run, gubernatorial, primary election, carpetbagger (after the Civil War), repeater, lame duck and pork barrel. Some of these are internationally used (e.g. caucus, gerrymander, filibuster, exit poll).rise of capitalism, the development of industry and material innovations throughout the 19th and 20th centuries were the source of a massive stock of distinctive new words, phrases and idioms. Typical examples are the vocabulary of railroading (see further at rail terminology) and transportation terminology, ranging from names of roads (from dirt roads and back roads to freeways and parkways) to road infrastructure (parking lot, overpass, rest area), and from automotive terminology to public transit (e.g. in the sentence "riding the subway downtown"); such American introductions as commuter (from commutation ticket), concourse, to board (a vehicle), to park, double-park and parallel park (a car), double decker or the noun terminal have long been used in all dialects of English. Trades of various kinds have endowed (American) English with household words describing jobs and occupations (bartender, longshoreman, patrolman, hobo, bouncer, bellhop, roustabout, white collar, blue collar, employee, boss [from Dutch], intern, busboy, mortician, senior citizen), businesses and workplaces (department store, supermarket, thrift store, gift shop, drugstore, motel, main street, gas station, hardware store, savings and loan, hock [also from Dutch]), as well as general concepts and innovations (automated teller machine, smart card, cash register, dishwasher, reservation [as at hotels], pay envelope, movie, mileage, shortage, outage, blood bank).existing English words -such as store, shop, dry goods, haberdashery, lumber- underwent shifts in meaning; some -such as mason, student, clerk, the verbs can (as in "canned goods"), ship, fix, carry, enroll (as in school), run (as in "run a business"), release and haul- were given new significations, while others (such as tradesman) have retained meanings that disappeared in England. From the world of business and finance came breakeven, merger, delisting, downsize, disintermediation, bottom line; from sports terminology came, jargon aside, Monday-morning quarterback, cheap shot, game plan (football); in the ballpark, out of left field, off base, hit and run, and many other idioms from baseball; gamblers coined bluff, blue chip, ante, bottom dollar, raw deal, pass the buck, ace in the hole, freeze-out, showdown; miners coined bedrock, bonanza, peter out, pan out and the verb prospect from the noun; and railroadmen are to be credited with make the grade, sidetrack, head-on, and the verb railroad. A number of Americanisms describing material innovations remained largely confined to North America: elevator, ground, gasoline; many automotive terms fall in this category, although many do not (hatchback, SUV, station wagon, tailgate, motorhome, truck, pickup truck, to exhaust).addition to the above-mentioned loans from French, Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Dutch, and Native American languages, other accretions from foreign languages came with 19th and early 20th century immigration; notably, from Yiddish (chutzpah, schmooze, tush and such idioms as need something like a hole in the head) and German -hamburger and culinary terms like frankfurter/franks, liverwurst, sauerkraut, wiener, deli(catessen); scram, kindergarten, gesundheit; musical terminology (whole note, half note, etc.); and apparently cookbook, fresh ("impudent") and what gives? Such constructions as Are you coming with? and I like to dance (for "I like dancing") may also be the result of German or Yiddish influence. Finally, a large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7), while others have not (have a nice day, sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey, boost, bulldoze and jazz, originated as American slang. Among the many English idioms of U.S. origin are get the hang of, take for a ride, bark up the wrong tree, keep tabs, run scared, take a backseat, have an edge over, stake a claim, take a shine to, in on the ground floor, bite off more than one can chew, off/on the wagon, stay put, inside track, stiff upper lip, bad hair day, throw a monkey wrench, under the weather, jump bail, come clean, come again?, it ain't over till it's over, what goes around comes around, and will the real x please stand up?words that survived in the United Statesnumber of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that always have been in everyday use in the United States dropped out in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots. Terms such as fall ("autumn"), pavement (to mean "road surface", where in Britain, as in Philadelphia, it is the equivalent of "sidewalk"), faucet, diaper, candy, skillet, eyeglasses, crib (for a baby), obligate, and raise a child are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year". During the 17th century, English immigration to the colonies in North America was at its peak, and the new settlers took their language with them, and while the term fall gradually became obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America. Gotten (past participle of get) is often considered to be an Americanism, although there are some areas of Britain, such as Lancashire and North-eastern England, that still continue to use it and sometimes also use putten as the past participle for put (which is not done by most speakers of American English).words and meanings, to various extents, were brought back to Britain, especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), quit ("to stop," which spawned quitter in the U.S.), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler), baggage, hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example monkey wrench and wastebasket, originated in 19th-century Britain.mandative subjunctive (as in "the City Attorney suggested that the case not be closed") is livelier in AmE than it is in British English; it appears in some areas as a spoken usage, and is considered obligatory in contexts that are more formal. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American than British English.of the differences in lexis or vocabulary between British and American English are in connection with concepts originating from the 19th century to the mid 20th century, when new words were coined independently. Almost the entire vocabularies of the car/automobile and railway/railroad industries (see Rail terminology) are different between the UK and US, for example. Other sources of difference are slang or vulgar terms, where frequent new coinage occurs, and idiomatic phrases, including phrasal verbs. The differences most likely to create confusion are those where the same word or phrase is used for two different concepts. Regional variations, even within the US or the UK, can create the same problems.is not a straightforward matter to classify differences of vocabulary. David Crystal identifies some of the problems of classification on the facing page to his list of American English/British English lexical variation, and states "this should be enough to suggest caution when working through an apparently simple list of equivalents".the influence of cross-culture media has done much to familiarize BrE and AmE speakers with each other's regional words and terms, many words are still recognized as part of a single form of English. Though the use of a British word would be acceptable in AmE (and vice versa), most listeners would recognize the word as coming from the other form of English, and treat it much the same as a word borrowed from any other language. For instance, an American using the word chap or mate to refer to a friend would be heard in much the same way as an American using the Spanish word amigo.and phrases which have their origins BrEspeakers of AmE are aware of some BrE terms, although they might not generally use them, or may be confused as to whether someone intends the American or British meaning (such as for biscuit). They will be able to guess approximately what some others, such as driving licence, mean. However, use of many other British words such as naff (unstylish, though commonly used to mean "not very good"), risks rendering a sentence incomprehensible to most Americans.and phrases which have their origins AmEof BrE are likely to understand most AmE terms, examples such as 'sidewalk', 'gas (gasoline/petrol)', 'counterclockwise', or 'elevator (lift)', without any problem. Certain terms which are heard less frequently, eg. 'copacetic (satisfactory)', are unlikely to be understood by most BrE speakers.and phrases with different meaningssuch as bill (AmE "paper money", BrE and AmE "invoice") and biscuit (AmE: BrE's "scone", BrE: AmE's "cookie") are used regularly in both AmE and BrE, but mean different things in each form As chronicled by Winston Churchill, the opposite meanings of the verb to table created a misunderstanding during a meeting of the Allied forces; in BrE to table an item on an agenda means to open it up for discussion, whereas in AmE, it means to remove it from discussion.word "football" in BrE refers to Association football, also known as soccer. In AmE, "football" means American football., the word "hockey" in BrE refers to field hockey, while in AmE "hockey" means ice hockey.with completely different meanings are relatively few; most of the time, there are either (1) words with one or more shared meanings and one or more meanings unique to one variety (e.g. bathroom and toilet) or (2) words whose meanings are actually common to both BrE and AmE, but which show differences in frequency, connotation, or denotation (e.g. smart, clever, mad).differences in usage and/or meaning can cause confusion or embarrassment. For example, the word fanny is a slang word for vagina in BrE (often used by small children) but simply means buttocks in AmE - the AmE phrase fanny pack is called a bum bag in BrE. In AmE the word fag (short for faggot) is a highly offensive term for a gay male, but in BrE it is also a normal and well-used term for a cigarette. In AmE the word pissed means being annoyed, where as in BrE it refers to being drunk (in both varieties, pissed off means irritated).the confusion is more subtle. In AmE the word quite used as a qualifier is generally a reinforcement: e.g. "I'm quite hungry" means "I'm very hungry". In BrE quite (which is much more common in conversation) can have this meaning, as in "quite right", "quite mad" or "I enjoyed that quite a lot", but it more commonly means "somewhat", so that in BrE "I'm quite hungry" can mean "I'm somewhat hungry" - and this divergence of use can lead to misunderstanding.

• 105. Peculiarities of regional varieties of the English language in newspapers in English-speaking countries
  Иностранные языки

  "It is important to realize that standard English is in no way intrinsically superior to any other variety of English: in particular, it is not 'more logical,' 'more grammatical,' or 'more expressive.' It is, at bottom, a convenience: the use of a single agreed standard form, learned by speakers everywhere, minimizes uncertainty, confusion, misunderstanding and communicative difficulty generally" [8: 72]. this start point can be so-called Standard English SE as well. To determine what is it and what its features we used web sites. According to numerous Russian web sites weve found out the follows definition: standard English - the official language of Great Britain taught at schools and universities, used by the press, the radio and the television and spoken by educated people may be defined as that form of English which is current and literary, substantially uniform and recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood [3: 41]. Is stands too far from science, but still some points are unquestionable for example: official language of Great Britain it really is, the statement that it is recognized as acceptable wherever English is spoken or understood [6: 223] is not wrong too, but today English is understood in the most part of the globe and under the concept is understood we mean any combinations of English-like-sound words which provide communication. It means that in India or in South Africa the English language is spoken and understood we deal with Standard English. As we know that it is wrong we cant accept the definition. Though in the further description of Standard English we can find some remarks: its vocabulary is contrasted to dialect words or dialectisms belonging to various local dialects (Trask R. L., 2000: 52). So the Indian English because of the dialectisms cant be considered as Standard, but there is no explanation of evaluation the dialectisms within the Great Britain, another weak point of the definition. And finally we can find wrong statement about dialect and language variant such as: local dialects are varieties of the English language peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called variants [4: 78]. Weve paid a lot of attention to this difference and it seems there is no need to go back to our arguments. This is the content of many essays and it is the same in many works, unfortunately we couldnt determine its origin but its obvious that it is taken from one and the same book.found the previous definition as unsatisfying we analyzed the material from Bad Language, suggested it as more reliable source. Their article is as follows: Standard English (often shortened to S.E. within linguistic circles) refers to whatever form of the English language is accepted as a national norm in an Anglophone country. It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, and spelling. In the British Isles, particularly in England and Wales, it is often associated with the "Received Pronunciation" accent, also known as Queen's English. In the United States it is generally associated with the "General American" accent, and in Australia with General Australian. Unlike the case of other standard languages, however, there is no official or central regulating body defining Standard English [2: 75]. It is quite informative and as usual native speakers provided more valuable information. The first difference is determining the Standard English as national norm in an Anglophone country, thus the author accepts that Standard Language can belong not only to the Great Britain and it is reasonable from the one point of work: there is a country which uses this language as official and it is no doubt standard for them, the laws, the literature, everyone goes along with these norms. But from another point of work in such a way we dont have a start point to determine deviations and variants. So if every English is the Standard English we should consider this as a paradox and give up this point of work, or neglect the regional division and consider it just wide set of rules which a rather flexible and can satisfy peoples from different countries.problems of point of works of two previous web sites left the question opened, but another source, devoted to the problem we find as proper and want to present it with the analyses. The article begins from the origins of the Standard English: By far the most influential factor in the rise of Standard English was the importance of London as the capital of England. London English took as well as gave. It began as a Southern and ended as a Midland dialect. By the 15th century there had come to prevail in the East Midlands a fairly uniform dialect, and the language of London agrees in all important respects with it. We can hardly doubt that the importance of the eastern counties is largely responsible for this change. Even such Northern characteristics as are found in the standard speech seem to have entered by way of these counties. The history of Standard English is almost a history of London English. [1: 172]. explains why we should consider the British English as standard through the history. But the question is still open: half-way through the 17th century, the lexicographer Thomas Blount declares that the 'Babel' of the vernacular made England a 'self-stranger' nation--one growing alien to itself through this diversity of available forms. He dedicates his dictionary of 1656 to the cause of having 'English Englished.' Arguably, in this context it is not the rise of a standard variety of language, but a new awareness of dialect and variability of discourse - the 'self-stranger' English of the Renaissance - that best defines the linguistic culture of early modern England [6: 62]. the final accord was in the end of the article: [T]here is no such thing (at present) as a Standard English which is not British or American or Australian, etc. There is no International Standard (yet), in the sense that publishers cannot currently aim at a standard which is not locally bound. [5: 23]. we can give up the search of standard English due to its declination to the International Standard, which is not bound to any country.

• 106. Pest–исследование предприятия ОАО "КамАЗ"
  Экономика

  За 2010 год в РФ было импортировано 11001 автомобиль, в том числе 7599 новых и 3402 подержанных грузовых автомобиля, говорится в исследовании, подготовленном Russian Automotive Market Research. Увеличение импорта грузовиков из-за границы ведущих мировых производителей может повлиять на конкурентоспособность фирмы, тем что наша продукция уступает заграничной в качестве. А снижение наоборот, укрепление позиций на российском рынке и увеличению прибыли организации. На экспорт же приходится уделять особое внимание, так как регулирование экспорта и разнообразие таможенных пошлин в экспортируемых странах, должно заставить организацию выбирать наименее убыточный вариант экспорта своей продукции.

• 107. PLC-технология
  Компьютеры, программирование

• 108. Polysemy in english language
  Иностранные языки

  By the "symbol" here is meant the word; thought or reference is concept. The dotted line suggests that there is no immediate relation between word" and referent: it is established only through the concept. /Antrushina English Lexicology p.130/the other hand, there is a hypothesis that concepts can only find their realization through words. It seems that thought is dormant till the word wakens it up. It is only when we hear a spoken word or read a printed word that the corresponding concept springs into mind. The mechanism by which concepts (i. e. mental phenomena) are converted into words (i. e. linguistic phenomena) and the reverse process by which a heard or a printed word is converted into a kind of mental picture are not yet understood or described.branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of meaning is called semantics. As with many terms, the term "semantics" is ambiguous for it can stand, as well, for the expressive aspect of language in general and for the meaning of one particular word in all its varied aspects and nuances (i. e. the semantics of a word = the meaning (s) of a word).unit which most people would think of as one word may carry a number of meanings, by association with certain contexts. Thus pipe can be any tubular object, a musical instrument or a piece of apparatus for smoking; a hand can be on a clock or watch as well as at the end of the arm. Multiple meaning or polysemy is of considerable linguistic importance, and the process of extension is a concern of historical linguistics. Most of the time, we are able to distinguish the intended meaning by the usual process of mental adjustment to context and register: we dont expect to find tobacco pipes in the school recorder band. The literary language, however, again refuses to give us comfortable divisions of meaning beyond which imagination need not stray. It often forces us to accept polysemy not as a feature from which we select but as one in which we meet the writers intention without restriction.writer may indeed call in the aid of context to distinguish the meanings of polysemantic words; but his intention is not necessarily to elucidate a single meaning but rather to emphasize the uncertainties of daily usage and to point from this to an ironical comment on the human predicament.may allow a writer to work on two levels concurrently, apparently relating one set of events while really indicating something different. We move here towards metaphor, which must be a separate concern, but it is interesting to see how a chosen image can be maintained by word-choice appropriate to the register in which we should normally expect to find it, while the metaphorical relation to hidden meaning is deferred. For example, George Herbert sustains the image of God as the landlord in the poem Redemption by use of legal terms which are in perfect register-agreement with the opening statement:been tenant long to a rich Lordthriving, I resolved to be bold,make a suite into him, to affordnew small-rented lease, and cancel tholdheaven at his manor I him sought:told me there that he was lately gonesome land, which he had dearly boughtsince on earth, to take possession.writer may not confine himself to any normal register but rather create his own by choices that would seem odd or questionable in that context in everyday use. It is useful, though without attempting to draw any impassable line, to distinguish between two ways in which a writers selection of a single word may seem admirable. We will assume that there is no syntagmatic deviation and that the choice is paradigmatic within a context that is free from apparent ambiguity. Of course, the associations and figurative applications of words may still operate even when there is no obvious polysemy.the first way, there is no deviation; the achievement is in tackling the problem of synonymous words. It may well be argued that there are no perfect synonyms, since choice must be conditioned by register, dialect and emotive association. However, the problem of word-selection is difficult and is not much aided by the brief definitions of a dictionary or the listings of a thesaurus. One of the most effective ways of finding out what a word means in current usage is by asking people whether they would readily use it in a given sentence.

• 109. PR в банковской системе
  Маркетинг

• 110. PR в системе местного самоуправления как механизм интенсификации социокультурного времени
  Социология

• 111. PR в средствах массовой информации как инструмент формирования повестки дня (на примере прессы Краснодарского края)
  Журналистика

  Одним из основных методов формирования повестки дня «Кубанских новостей» является метод акцентирования внимания на деятельности политических лидеров края, таких как Александр Ткачев, Владимир Евланов, Владимир Бекетов, Иван Перонко, Мурат Ахеджак. Образы политических лидеров имеют положительную окраску. Перед глазами читателей краевые политики предстают деятельными личностями, заботящимися о благополучии граждан. Пример публикации: «Председатель Законодательного Собрания края Владимир Бекетов побывал с рабочей поездкой в Успенском районе. Провел встречи с избирателями в селе Коноково и станице Николаевской, где присутствовало более одной тысячи жителей из пяти поселений района. А начал руководитель кубанского парламента свой визит с посещения открывшегося детского сада в поселке Заречный и спортплощадки в селе Вольное». «Учиться трудиться - всегда пригодиться» (9.05.2010), «...Губернатор Александр Ткачев не один раз говорил, что в работе с обращениями граждан не бывает мелких и незначительных проблем - все должны решаться оперативно и качественно, а на все вопросы даны конструктивные ответы...» «На каждый вопрос дали ответ» (04.06.2010).

• 112. PR и журналистика
  Журналистика

  Связи с общественностью и журналистика. Связь с общественностью и журналистика - это две смежные структуры, которые имеют много общего и различного. Для того чтобы всецело охарактеризовать эти два понятия дадим четкое и полное их определение. Связи с общественностью - это практика создания, закрепление и поддержание престижа и авторитета института, общественной организации и т.д. в глазах широкой общественности. Многие, прочитав эти определения, могут предположить, что PR - это одна из отраслей журналистской деятельности. Но на самом деле журналистика - это общественная деятельность по сбору и обработке актуальной и социальной информации (через печать, радио, телевидение, кино и Интернет); одна из форм ведение массовой пропаганды и агитации. Для полного анализа этих профессий попробуем сравнить журналистику и PR. PR - это искусство коммуникации при помощи различных средств (таких, как масс-медиа, Интернет, литература) или непосредственно на выставках, семинарах и других мероприятиях. PR-стратегия должна обеспечивать использование всех доступных каналов коммуникации с максимальной эффективностью, учет любых возможностей, достижение ясности и релевантности сообщений, а также доступности последних для непосредственных исполнителей. Журналистика же ставит перед собой немножко иные функции. Она развлекает, просвещает, обсуждает социальные проблемы, информирует о чем-либо и т.п. PR подает узконаправленную информацию о какой-либо организации (мероприятии, какой-либо структуре). Результатом PR должно быть не только поверхностные знания об организации (мероприятии или структуре), но и уверенность общества в эффективности, значимости этой организации, а также доверия к нему. PR может быть использован для углубленного и всестороннего изучение возможности персонала, позволяя лучше понять организацию, ее этические принципы и амбиции. Журналистика же этим не занимается. PR - эффективный инструмент пропаганды и информации о новых разработках в отношении определенной аудитории или пробуждение заинтересованности тем или иным предметом всех его слоев общественности. Журналистика периодически прибегает к методам пропаганды, но чаще всего это касается всего населения в целом. СМИ играют ведущую роль в PR-программе (как сами по себе, так и в качестве поддержки других видов деятельности), и чаще организация использует только их возможности. Этот термин определяет в совокупности следующие информационные структуры: пресса, радио и телевидение, Интернет. Сотрудничество с ними может иметь общий характер (выпуск пресс-релизов и тому подобное) так и частный. Хотя кампания обычно сфокусирована на рекламе организации, в сфере охвата могут оказаться интересные события и проводимые мероприятия. В сфере PR и журналистики огромную роль играет написание статей (в PR - пресс-релизы, информационные статьи, пресс-киты, кейс-истории и т.д.; в журналистике - эссе, художественные статьи, новости, репортажи и т.д.). PR и журналистика творчески многообразны. Если рассматривать PR и журналистику в целом, то можно сделать вывод, что обе эти сферы имеют большую аудиторию, хотя PR чаще всего узконаправлен к какой-либо определенной сфере (социальной, культурной, экономической). Для PR и журналистики очень важна обратная связь, которая дает им отчет о проделанной работе. Но в своей деятельности они освещают различные сферы жизни: спорт, искусство, образование, бизнес, но каждый по-своему. В журналистике требуется творческий подход к написанию статей, часто приветствуется субъективизм и авторское «Я». В PR все наоборот. PR-статьи скорее ближе к аналитическим и рекламным, чем к журналистским, хотя авторское «Я» также присутствует. Из всего вышесказанного можно сделать вывод, что связи с общественностью и журналистика две кривые, которые периодически пересекаются, но никак не являются идентичными. Журналистика, также журнализм - литературная деятельность журналиста в средствах массовой информации. Сначала журналистика ограничивалась только печатными изданиями, затем, с появлением новых средств массовой информации, распространилась на радио и телевидение, а к концу XX века появились и интернет-издания, которые сейчас либо дополняют уже существующие печатные издания, либо составляют им конкуренцию. В дальнейшем, в связи с ростом пользователей сети интернет, журналистика будет ориентирована на интернет-издания, а печатная журналистика будет реформирована. На сегодняшний день эта «эволюция журналистики» уже наблюдается в странах с большим количеством пользователей интернета.

• 113. PR и реклама в продвижении брендов
  Маркетинг

  Вирусная реклама - может просто взорвать количество клиентов компании. Специалистам по вирусной рекламе платят огромные деньги. Ни одна большая компания не обходиться без отдела по вирусной рекламе. Удачных примеров огромное количество, хотя часто Вы об этом и не подозреваете. Друг Вам бросил посмотреть ролик, Вам он понравился и Вы бросаете его еще нескольким друзьям даже не подозревая, что над этим роликом работали специально, чтобы достичь такого эффекта. Вирусная реклама бывает двух видов: открытая и скрытая. Открытая - это когда явно указан какой-то бренд. Например, в конце ролика, если это видео. Скрытая вирусная реклама направлена на подсознательное восприятие человека. Когда Вы видите в ролике где-нибудь логотип, но не задумываетесь о нем и не понимаете, что он здесь не спроста. Кстати говоря, такое даже можно встретить в фильмах. Но это уже другая история, не связанная с вирусной рекламой. А в реале к вирусной рекламе можно отнести некоторую рекламу по телевидению. Последнее, что ярко вспоминается, реклама "Snikers" с белками смотрящими на биг-борд.

• 114. PR как технология эффективного управления фирмой (на примере строительной фирмы ООО "А")
  Менеджмент

  Во-первых, PR использует управление, основанное не на воздействии, а на взаимодействии, механизмом которого является согласование интересов. Основными технологиями управления служат технологии, обеспечивающие двусторонние коммуникации: встречи, дискуссии, собрания, круглые столы и т.д., или создающие основу таких коммуникаций: исследования общественного мнения, контент-анализ прессы и т.д. Во-вторых, важная особенность PR состоит в том, что эта деятельность осуществляется через специализированные структуры, которые занимают место посредника между организацией и общественностью. Службу PR можно назвать специализированным посредническим институтом управления. Эта роль свойственна только PR-службам и неприменима к другим управленческим механизмам, к другой профессиональной деятельности - журналистике, социологии, политике, психологии и т.д. В-третьих, в процессе PR-взаимодействия субъект и объект нередко меняются местами. Взаимодействие с общественностью оказывает существенное влияние на деятельность организации, а общественность, в свою очередь, получает возможность расширить свои знания, изменить свое мнение и поведение относительно организации. Происходят процессы взаимного воздействия друг на друга организации и общественности и, как следствие, их взаимные изменения.

• 115. PR менеджмент в турагенстве
  Менеджмент

  Еще одним затруднением на пути распространения public relations в России является то, что в нашей стране вообще с трудом приживается что-то новое, иностранное. На протяжении 70 лет таких понятий, как "конкуренция", "борьба за клиентов" просто не существовало. Поэтому, даже сейчас многим менеджерам кажется, что это они могут выбирать себе клиентов, а последние - должны быть благодарны за хорошо проведенный отпуск. Однако со временем ситуация менялась. Сейчас туристы уже понимают, что туристических компаний много, и есть из чего выбрать. Качественная же работа постепенно становится не преимуществом, а нормой деловой жизни. И даже те менеджеры, которые понимают важность гармоничных взаимоотношений с общественностью, не всегда могут реализовывать это на практике. Дело в том, что если рекламе российские предприниматели уже кое-как научились, то public relations до сих пор остаются для большинства тайной за семью печатями. Специалистов в данной области крайне мало, и большинство из них сконцентрировано в крупных PR-агентствах, воспользоваться услугами которых может далеко не каждая фирма. Поэтому важно готовить специалистов с новым мышлением в духе public relations, которые могли бы развивать и совершенствовать связи с общественностью в сфере российского бизнеса. Именно в них - залог успеха. Может возникнуть вопрос, не является ли все, рассмотренное в данное работе, частным случаем, достойным внимания лишь узкой группы специалистов туристического бизнеса? Думаю, что нет. Во-первых, ситуация в области public relations во многом сходна для всех отраслей бизнеса. А во-вторых, проведенный анализ может служить базой для проведения анализа в других областях не только сферы обслуживания, но и производства. К тому же, если российские компании хотят быть конкурентоспособными на мировом рынке, без public relations обойтись нельзя, так как они уже стали нормой жизни мирового сообщества. Данная дипломная работа может иметь определенную практическую ценность. Проведенное исследование позволило обобщить ситуацию в туристическом бизнесе и сделать определенные выводы. Сразу стали видны основные направления, которые еще предстоит развить. Стал очевидным недостаток финансов и знаний у сотрудников туристических компаний в области public relations. Все это позволит совершенствовать связи с общественностью в малом и среднем бизнесе.

• 116. PR технологии в борьбе политических партий
  Политология

  Актуальность исследования, которое будет проводиться в дипломной работе, очевидна: отечественные политические ученые и аналитики занялись проблемами «public relations» технологий только лишь с 1991 года, после появления возможности альтернативных выборов. Серьезные и четко сформированные школы «public relations» в России еще только начали формироваться, однако уже довольно долго по времени исследуется и разрабатывается целая система важнейших проблем политической науки в сфере «public relations». Глубокое изучение проблем самостоятельности политического PR, его разницы и отличия от политической рекламы, а также правил пропаганды, провели такие ученые как С.А.Марков, Г.Г. Почепцов, И.Б. Манн, которые утверждают, что «public relations» - это самостоятельная сфера в политической науке. По их мнению, она занимается организацией внешней связи, одной из главных сторон которой непременно является общественность и общественное мнение. Этим данные исследователи прямо оппонируют школе «public relations» С.Ф. Лисовского, которая приравнивает политический PR к рекламе и сводит всё к ситуации выборов, чем очень сужает подход. Хотя «другая сторона медали» - Филипп Буари, который еще в 1964 году, в своем «Манифесте PR» разоблачил подобные мнения и выявил несовместимость этих понятий. Исследованием взаимосвязей «public relations» и пропаганды занимались такие ученые-аналитики как Б.Л.Борисов, в своей книге «Технологии рекламы и PR» он утверждал, что это довольно спаянные вместе понятия, различия которых состоят только лишь в среде обитания, а именно - в политических режимах. Продолжая традицию профессора Тэйлора, российские ученые, а именно Э.Е. Старобинский утверждает, что «public relations» является частью пропаганды. С ним совершенно согласен И.С. Березин, который отвел большое количество своих исследований тому, что пропаганда представляет собой часть PR.

• 117. Pr?ventionsm?glichkeiten des Alkoholmissbrauchs bei Jugendlichen
  Социология

• 118. Problems of race discrimination of the USA in the XX century
  Социология

  ,%20during%20which%20Africans%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African>%20were%20enslaved%20and%20treated%20as%20property%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property>.%20Prior%20to%20the%20institution%20of%20slavery,%20early%20African%20and%20non-white%20immigrants%20to%20the%20Colonies%20had%20been%20regarded%20with%20equal%20status,%20serving%20as%20sharecroppers%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharecroppers>%20alongside%20whites.%20After%20the%20institution%20of%20slavery%20the%20status%20of%20Africans%20was%20stigmatized,%20and%20this%20stigma%20was%20the%20basis%20for%20the%20more%20virulent%20anti-African%20racism%20that%20persisted%20until%20the%20present.colonial%20America,%20before%20slavery%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States>%20became%20completely%20based%20on%20racial%20lines,%20thousands%20of%20African%20slaves%20served%20European%20colonists,%20alongside%20other%20Europeans%20serving%20a%20term%20of%20indentured%20servitude%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servitude>.%20In%20some%20cases%20for%20African%20slaves,%20a%20term%20of%20service%20meant%20freedom%20and%20a%20land%20grant%20afterward,%20but%20these%20were%20rarely%20awarded,%20and%20few%20former%20slaves%20became%20landowners%20this%20way.%20In%20a%20precursor%20to%20the%20American%20Revolution,%20Nathaniel%20Bacon%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Bacon_(colonist)>%20led%20a%20revolt%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon%27s_Rebellion>%20in%201676%20against%20the%20Governor%20of%20Virginia%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia>%20and%20the%20system%20of%20exploitation%20he%20represented:%20exploitation%20of%20poorer%20colonists%20by%20the%20increasingly%20wealthy%20landowners%20where%20poorer%20people,%20regardless%20of%20skin%20color,%20fought%20side%20by%20side.%20However,%20Bacon%20died,%20probably%20of%20dysentery%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery>;%20hundreds%20of%20participants%20in%20the%20revolt%20were%20lured%20to%20disarm%20by%20a%20promised%20amnesty%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty>;%20and%20the%20revolt%20lost%20steam.were%20primarily%20used%20for%20agricultural%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture>%20labor,%20notably%20in%20the%20production%20of%20cotton%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton>%20and%20tobacco%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco>.%20Black%20slavery%20in%20the%20Northeast%20was%20common%20until%20the%20early%2019th%20century,%20when%20many%20Northeastern%20states%20abolished%20slavery.%20Slaves%20were%20used%20as%20a%20labor%20force%20in%20agricultural%20production,%20shipyards,%20docks,%20and%20as%20domestic%20servants.%20In%20both%20regions,%20only%20the%20wealthiest%20Americans%20owned%20slaves.%20In%20contrast,%20poor%20whites%20recognized%20that%20slavery%20devalued%20their%20own%20labor.%20The%20social%20rift%20along%20color%20lines%20soon%20became%20ingrained%20in%20every%20aspect%20of%20colonial%20American%20culture.%20Approximately%20one%20Southern%20family%20in%20four%20held%20slaves%20prior%20to%20war.%20According%20to%20the%201860%20U.%20S.%20census,%20there%20were%20about%20385,000%20slave%20owners%20out%20of%20approximately%201.5%20million%20white%20families.the%20early%20part%20of%20the%2019th%20century,%20a%20variety%20of%20organizations%20were%20established%20advocating%20the%20movement%20of%20black%20people%20from%20the%20United%20States%20to%20locations%20where%20they%20would%20enjoy%20greater%20freedom;%20some%20endorsed%20colonization%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony>,%20while%20others%20advocated%20emigration%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigration>.%20During%20the%201820s%20and%201830s%20the%20American%20Colonization%20Society%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Colonization_Society>%20(A.%20C.%20S.)%20was%20the%20primary%20vehicle%20for%20proposals%20to%20return%20black%20Americans%20to%20greater%20freedom%20and%20equality%20in%20Africa,%20and%20in%201821%20the%20A.%20C.%20S.%20established%20the%20colony%20of%20Liberia%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia>,%20assisting%20thousands%20of%20former%20African-American%20slaves%20and%20free%20black%20people%20(with%20legislated%20limits)%20to%20move%20there%20from%20the%20United%20States.%20The%20colonization%20effort%20resulted%20from%20a%20mixture%20of%20motives%20with%20its%20founder%20Henry%20Clay%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay>%20stating;%20"unconquerable%20prejudice%20resulting%20from%20their%20color,%20they%20never%20could%20amalgamate%20with%20the%20free%20whites%20of%20this%20country.%20It%20was%20desirable,%20therefore,%20as%20it%20respected%20them,%20and%20the%20residue%20of%20the%20population%20of%20the%20country,%20to%20drain%20them%20off".the%20Constitution%20had%20banned%20the%20importation%20of%20new%20African%20slaves%20in%201808,%20and%20in%201820%20slave%20trade%20was%20equated%20with%20piracy,%20punishable%20by%20death,%20the%20practice%20of%20chattel%20slavery%20still%20existed%20for%20the%20next%20half%20century.%20All%20slaves%20in%20only%20the%20areas%20of%20the%20Confederate%20States%20of%20America%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America>%20that%20were%20not%20under%20direct%20control%20of%20the%20United%20States%20government%20were%20declared%20free%20by%20the%20Emancipation%20Proclamation%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation>,%20which%20was%20issued%20on%20January%201,%201863%20by%20President%20Abraham%20Lincoln%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln>.%20It%20should%20be%20noted%20that%20the%20Emancipation%20Proclamation%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation>%20did%20not%20apply%20to%20areas%20loyal%20to,%20or%20controlled%20by,%20the%20Union,%20thus%20the%20document%20only%20freed%20slaves%20where%20the%20Union%20still%20had%20not%20regained%20the%20legitimacy%20to%20do%20so.%20Slavery%20was%20not%20actually%20abolished%20in%20the%20United%20States%20until%20the%20passage%20of%20the%2013th%20Amendment%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution>%20which%20was%20declared%20ratified%20on%20December%206,%201865.4%20million%20black%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American>%20slaves%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery>%20were%20freed%20in%201865.%20Ninety-five%20percent%20of%20blacks%20lived%20in%20the%20South,%20comprising%20one%20third%20of%20the%20population%20there%20as%20opposed%20to%20one%20percent%20of%20the%20population%20of%20the%20North.%20Consequently,%20fears%20of%20eventual%20emancipation%20were%20much%20greater%20in%20the%20South%20than%20in%20the%20North.%20Based%20on%201860%20census%20figures,%208%%20of%20all%20white%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_American>%20males%20aged%2013%20to%2043%20died%20in%20the%20civil%20war,%20including%206%%20in%20the%20North%20and%20an%20extraordinary%2018%%20in%20the%20South.%20Despite%20this,%20post-emancipation%20America%20was%20not%20free%20from%20racism;%20discriminatory%20practices%20continued%20in%20the%20United%20States%20with%20the%20existence%20of%20Jim%20Crow%20laws%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws>,%20educational%20disparities%20and%20widespread%20criminal%20acts%20against%20people%20of%20color.new%20century%20saw%20a%20hardening%20of%20institutionalized%20racism%20and%20legal%20discrimination%20against%20citizens%20of%20African%20descent%20in%20the%20United%20States.%20Although%20technically%20able%20to%20vote,%20poll%20taxes%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll_tax>,%20acts%20of%20terror%20(often%20perpetuated%20by%20groups%20such%20as%20the%20Ku%20Klux%20Klan%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan>,%20founded%20in%20the%20Reconstruction%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States>%20South),%20and%20discriminatory%20laws%20such%20as%20grandfather%20clauses%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clause>%20kept%20black%20Americans%20disenfranchised%20particularly%20in%20the%20South%20but%20also%20nationwide%20following%20the%20Hayes%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes>%20election%20at%20the%20end%20of%20the%20Reconstruction%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States>%20era%20in%201877.%20In%20response%20to%20de%20jure%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure>%20racism,%20protest%20and%20lobbyist%20groups%20emerged,%20most%20notably,%20the%20NAACP%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP>%20(National%20Association%20for%20the%20Advancement%20of%20Colored%20People)%20in%201909.time%20period%20is%20sometimes%20referred%20to%20as%20the%20nadir%20of%20American%20race%20relations%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations>%20because%20racism%20in%20the%20United%20States%20was%20worse%20during%20this%20time%20than%20at%20any%20period%20before%20or%20since.%20Segregation%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation>,%20racial%20discrimination%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discrimination>,%20and%20expressions%20of%20white%20supremacy%20all%20increased.%20So%20did%20anti-black%20violence,%20including%20lynchings%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynchings>%20and%20race%20riots%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_riot>.addition,%20racism%20which%20had%20been%20worked%20primarily%20as%20a%20problem%20in%20the%20Southern%20states,%20burst%20onto%20the%20national%20consciousness%20following%20the%20Great%20Migration%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)>,%20the%20relocation%20of%20millions%20of%20African%20Americans%20from%20their%20roots%20in%20the%20Southern%20states%20to%20the%20industrial%20centers%20of%20the%20North%20after%20World%20War%20I,%20particularly%20in%20cities%20such%20as%20Boston%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston>,%20Chicago%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago>,%20and%20New%20York%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City>%20(Harlem%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem>).%20In%20northern%20cities,%20racial%20tensions%20exploded,%20most%20violently%20in%20Chicago,%20and%20lynchings%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States>--mob-directed%20hangings,%20usually%20racially%20motivated-increased%20dramatically%20in%20the%201920s.%20As%20a%20member%20of%20the%20Princeton%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University>%20chapter%20of%20the%20NAACP,%20Albert%20Einstein%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein>%20corresponded%20with%20W.%20E.%20B.%20Du%20Bois%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois>,%20and%20in%201946%20Einstein%20called%20racism%20America's%20"worst%20disease".substantial%20gains%20were%20made%20in%20the%20succeeding%20decades%20through%20middle%20class%20advancement%20and%20public%20employment,%20black%20poverty%20and%20lack%20of%20education%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States>%20deepened%20in%20the%20context%20of%20de-industrialization.%20Prejudice,%20discrimination,%20and%20institutional%20racism%20(see%20below)%20continued%20to%20affect%20African%20Americans.1981%20to%201997,%20the%20United%20States%20Department%20of%20Agriculture%20discriminated%20against%20tens%20of%20thousands%20of%20African%20American%20farmers,%20denying%20loans%20provided%20to%20white%20farmers%20in%20similar%20circumstances.%20The%20discrimination%20was%20the%20subject%20of%20the%20Pigford%20v.%20Glickman%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman>%20lawsuit%20brought%20by%20members%20of%20the%20National%20Black%20Farmers%20Association%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association>,%20which%20resulted%20in%20two%20settlement%20agreements%20of%20$1.25%20billion%20in%201999%20and%20of%20$1.15%20billion%20in%202009.cite%20the%202008%20United%20States%20presidential%20election%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election>%20as%20a%20step%20forward%20in%20race%20relations:%20White%20Americans%20played%20a%20role%20in%20electing%20Barack%20Obama%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama>,%20the%20country's%20first%20black%20president.%20However,%20according%20to%20exit%20polls,%20over%20sixty%20percent%20of%20white%20Americans%20voted%20for%20McCain.%20Racial%20divisions%20persisted%20throughout%20the%20election;%20wide%20margins%20of%20Black%20voters%20gave%20Obama%20an%20edge%20during%20the%20presidential%20primary,%20where%208%20out%20of%2010%20African-Americans%20voted%20for%20him%20in%20the%20primaries,%20and%20an%20MSNBC%20poll%20showed%20that%20race%20was%20a%20key%20factor%20in%20whether%20a%20candidate%20was%20perceived%20as%20being%20ready%20for%20office.%20In%20South%20Carolina,%20for%20instance,%20"Whites%20were%20far%20likelier%20to%20name%20Clinton%20than%20Obama%20as%20being%20most%20qualified%20to%20be%20commander%20in%20chief,%20likeliest%20to%20unite%20the%20country%20and%20most%20apt%20to%20capture%20the%20White%20House%20in%20November.%20Blacks%20named%20Obama%20over%20Clinton%20by%20even%20stronger%20margins%20-%20two%20-%20and%20three-to%20one%20-%20in%20all%20three%20areas.%20"the%20Pacific%20States%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_States>,%20racism%20was%20primarily%20directed%20against%20the%20resident%20Asian%20immigrants.%20Several%20immigration%20laws%20discriminated%20against%20the%20Asians,%20and%20at%20different%20points%20the%20ethnic%20Chinese%20or%20other%20groups%20were%20banned%20from%20entering%20the%20United%20States%20Nonwhites%20were%20prohibited%20from%20testifying%20against%20whites,%20a%20prohibition%20extended%20to%20the%20Chinese%20by%20People%20v.%20Hall%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_v._Hall>.%20The%20Chinese%20were%20often%20subject%20to%20harder%20labor%20on%20the%20First%20Transcontinental%20Railroad%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Railroad>%20and%20often%20performed%20the%20more%20dangerous%20tasks%20such%20as%20using%20dynamite%20to%20make%20pathways%20through%20the%20mountains.%20The%20San%20Francisco%20Vigilance%20Movement%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Vigilance_Movement>,%20although%20ostensibly%20a%20response%20to%20crime%20and%20corruption,%20also%20systematically%20victimized%20Irish%20immigrants,%20and%20later%20this%20was%20transformed%20into%20mob%20violence%20against%20Chinese%20immigrants.%20Anti-Chinese%20sentiment%20was%20also%20rife%20in%20early%20Los%20Angeles,%20culminating%20in%20a%20notorious%201871%20riot%20in%20which%20a%20mob%20comprising%20every%20other%20nationality%20then%20resident%20in%20the%20city.the%20ensuing%20inquests%20and%20trials,%20all%20the%20perpetrators%20either%20were%20acquitted,%20or%20received%20only%20light%20punishments%20for%20lesser%20offenses,%20because%20the%20testimony%20of%20Chinese%20witnesses%20was%20either%20completely%20inadmissible,%20or%20else%20considered%20less%20credible%20than%20that%20of%20others.%20Legal%20discrimination%20of%20Asian%20minorities%20was%20furthered%20with%20the%20passages%20of%20the%20Chinese%20Exclusion%20Act%20of%201882%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_(United_States)>,%20which%20banned%20the%20entrance%20of%20virtually%20all%20ethnic%20Chinese%20immigrants%20into%20the%20United%20States%20until%201943.World%20War%20II,%20the%20United%20States%20created%20internment%20camps%20for%20Japanese%20American%20citizens%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_American_internment>%20in%20fear%20that%20they%20would%20be%20used%20as%20spies%20for%20the%20Japanese.%20Currently%20implemented%20immigration%20laws%20are%20still%20largely%20plagued%20with%20national%20origin-based%20quotas%20that%20is%20unfavorable%20to%20Asian%20countries%20due%20to%20large%20populations%20and%20historically%20low%20U.%20S.%20immigration%20rates.of%20Latin%20American%20ancestry%20(often%20categorized%20as%20"Hispanic%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic>")%20come%20from%20a%20wide%20variety%20of%20racial%20and%20ethnic%20backgrounds.%20Latinos%20are%20not%20all%20distinguishable%20as%20a%20racial%20minority.the%20Mexican-American%20War%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-American_War>%20(1846-1848),%20the%20U.%20S.%20annexed%20much%20of%20the%20current%20Southwestern%20region%20from%20Mexico.%20Mexicans%20residing%20in%20that%20territory%20found%20themselves%20subject%20to%20discrimination.%20It%20is%20estimated%20that%20at%20least%20597%20Mexicans%20were%20lynched%20between%201848%20and%201928%20(this%20is%20a%20conservative%20estimate%20due%20to%20lack%20of%20records%20in%20many%20reported%20lynchings).%20Mexicans%20were%20lynched%20at%20a%20rate%20of%2027.4%20per%20100,000%20of%20population%20between%201880%20and%201930.%20This%20statistic%20is%20second%20only%20to%20that%20of%20the%20African%20American%20community%20during%20that%20period,%20which%20suffered%20an%20average%20of%2037.1%20per%20100,000%20populations.%20Between%201848%20to%201879,%20Mexicans%20were%20lynched%20at%20an%20unprecedented%20rate%20of%20473%20per%20100,000%20of%20population.The%20Great%20Depression%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Depression>,%20the%20U.%20S.government%20sponsored%20a%20Mexican%20Repatriation%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Repatriation>%20program%20which%20was%20intended%20to%20encourage%20Mexican%20immigrants%20to%20voluntarily%20return%20to%20Mexico,%20however,%20many%20were%20forcibly%20removed%20against%20their%20will.%20In%20total,%20up%20to%20one%20million%20persons%20of%20Mexican%20ancestry%20were%20deported,%20approximately%2060%20percent%20those%20individuals%20were%20actually%20U.%20S.%20citizens.Zoot%20Suit%20Riots%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot_Suit_Riots>%20were%20vivid%20incidents%20of%20racial%20violence%20against%20Latinos%20(e.%20g.%20Mexican-Americans%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-Americans>)%20in%20Los%20Angeles%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles>%20in%201943.%20Naval%20servicemen%20stationed%20in%20a%20Latino%20neighborhood%20conflicted%20with%20youth%20in%20the%20dense%20neighborhood.%20Frequent%20confrontations%20between%20small%20groups%20and%20individuals%20had%20intensified%20into%20several%20days%20of%20non-stop%20rioting.%20Large%20mobs%20of%20servicemen%20would%20enter%20civilian%20quarters%20looking%20to%20attack%20Mexican%20American%20youths,%20some%20of%20whom%20were%20wearing%20zoot%20suits%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot_suit>,%20a%20distinctive%20exaggerated%20fashion%20popular%20among%20that%20group.%20The%20disturbances%20continued%20unchecked,%20and%20even%20assisted,%20by%20the%20local%20police%20for%20several%20days%20before%20base%20commanders%20declared%20downtown%20Los%20Angeles%20and%20Mexican%20American%20neighborhoods%20off-limits%20to%20servicemen.public%20institutions,%20businesses,%20and%20homeowners%20associations%20had%20official%20policies%20to%20exclude%20Mexican%20Americans.%20School%20children%20of%20Mexican%20American%20descent%20were%20subject%20to%20racial%20segregation%20in%20the%20public%20school%20system.%20In%20many%20counties,%20Mexican%20Americans%20were%20excluded%20from%20serving%20as%20jurors%20in%20court%20cases,%20especially%20in%20those%20that%20involved%20a%20Mexican%20American%20defendant.%20In%20many%20areas%20across%20the%20Southwest,%20they%20lived%20in%20separate%20residential%20areas,%20due%20to%20laws%20and%20real%20estate%20company%20policies.the%201960s,%20Mexican%20American%20youth%20rallied%20behind%20civil%20rights%20causes%20and%20launched%20the%20Chicano%20Movement%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicano_Movement>.">Perhaps the most prominent and notable form of American racism (other than imperialism against Native Americans) began with the institution of slavery <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States>, during which Africans <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African> were enslaved and treated as property <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Property>. Prior to the institution of slavery, early African and non-white immigrants to the Colonies had been regarded with equal status, serving as sharecroppers <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharecroppers> alongside whites. After the institution of slavery the status of Africans was stigmatized, and this stigma was the basis for the more virulent anti-African racism that persisted until the present.colonial America, before slavery <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States> became completely based on racial lines, thousands of African slaves served European colonists, alongside other Europeans serving a term of indentured servitude <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indentured_servitude>. In some cases for African slaves, a term of service meant freedom and a land grant afterward, but these were rarely awarded, and few former slaves became landowners this way. In a precursor to the American Revolution, Nathaniel Bacon <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Bacon_(colonist)> led a revolt <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacon%27s_Rebellion> in 1676 against the Governor of Virginia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia> and the system of exploitation he represented: exploitation of poorer colonists by the increasingly wealthy landowners where poorer people, regardless of skin color, fought side by side. However, Bacon died, probably of dysentery <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysentery>; hundreds of participants in the revolt were lured to disarm by a promised amnesty <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty>; and the revolt lost steam.were primarily used for agricultural <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture> labor, notably in the production of cotton <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cotton> and tobacco <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco>. Black slavery in the Northeast was common until the early 19th century, when many Northeastern states abolished slavery. Slaves were used as a labor force in agricultural production, shipyards, docks, and as domestic servants. In both regions, only the wealthiest Americans owned slaves. In contrast, poor whites recognized that slavery devalued their own labor. The social rift along color lines soon became ingrained in every aspect of colonial American culture. Approximately one Southern family in four held slaves prior to war. According to the 1860 U. S. census, there were about 385,000 slave owners out of approximately 1.5 million white families.the early part of the 19th century, a variety of organizations were established advocating the movement of black people from the United States to locations where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony>, while others advocated emigration <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigration>. During the 1820s and 1830s the American Colonization Society <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Colonization_Society> (A. C. S.) was the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa, and in 1821 the A. C. S. established the colony of Liberia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberia>, assisting thousands of former African-American slaves and free black people (with legislated limits) to move there from the United States. The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Clay> stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".the Constitution had banned the importation of new African slaves in 1808, and in 1820 slave trade was equated with piracy, punishable by death, the practice of chattel slavery still existed for the next half century. All slaves in only the areas of the Confederate States of America <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America> that were not under direct control of the United States government were declared free by the Emancipation Proclamation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation>, which was issued on January 1, 1863 by President Abraham Lincoln <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln>. It should be noted that the Emancipation Proclamation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation> did not apply to areas loyal to, or controlled by, the Union, thus the document only freed slaves where the Union still had not regained the legitimacy to do so. Slavery was not actually abolished in the United States until the passage of the 13th Amendment <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution> which was declared ratified on December 6, 1865.4 million black <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American> slaves <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery> were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of blacks lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_American> males aged 13 to 43 died in the civil war, including 6% in the North and an extraordinary 18% in the South. Despite this, post-emancipation America was not free from racism; discriminatory practices continued in the United States with the existence of Jim Crow laws <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws>, educational disparities and widespread criminal acts against people of color.new century saw a hardening of institutionalized racism and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Although technically able to vote, poll taxes <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll_tax>, acts of terror (often perpetuated by groups such as the Ku Klux Klan <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan>, founded in the Reconstruction <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States> South), and discriminatory laws such as grandfather clauses <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clause> kept black Americans disenfranchised particularly in the South but also nationwide following the Hayes <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes> election at the end of the Reconstruction <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States> era in 1877. In response to de jure <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure> racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the NAACP <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP> (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909.time period is sometimes referred to as the nadir of American race relations <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations> because racism in the United States was worse during this time than at any period before or since. Segregation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation>, racial discrimination <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discrimination>, and expressions of white supremacy all increased. So did anti-black violence, including lynchings <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynchings> and race riots <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_riot>.addition, racism which had been worked primarily as a problem in the Southern states, burst onto the national consciousness following the Great Migration <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)>, the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the Southern states to the industrial centers of the North after World War I, particularly in cities such as Boston <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston>, Chicago <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago>, and New York <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City> (Harlem <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem>). In northern cities, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and lynchings <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States>--mob-directed hangings, usually racially motivated-increased dramatically in the 1920s. As a member of the Princeton <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University> chapter of the NAACP, Albert Einstein <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein> corresponded with W. E. B. Du Bois <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois>, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, black poverty and lack of education <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States> deepened in the context of de-industrialization. Prejudice, discrimination, and institutional racism (see below) continued to affect African Americans.1981 to 1997, the United States Department of Agriculture discriminated against tens of thousands of African American farmers, denying loans provided to white farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the Pigford v. Glickman <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman> lawsuit brought by members of the National Black Farmers Association <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association>, which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1.25 billion in 1999 and of $1.15 billion in 2009.cite the 2008 United States presidential election <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election> as a step forward in race relations: White Americans played a role in electing Barack Obama <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama>, the country's first black president. However, according to exit polls, over sixty percent of white Americans voted for McCain. Racial divisions persisted throughout the election; wide margins of Black voters gave Obama an edge during the presidential primary, where 8 out of 10 African-Americans voted for him in the primaries, and an MSNBC poll showed that race was a key factor in whether a candidate was perceived as being ready for office. In South Carolina, for instance, "Whites were far likelier to name Clinton than Obama as being most qualified to be commander in chief, likeliest to unite the country and most apt to capture the White House in November. Blacks named Obama over Clinton by even stronger margins - two - and three-to one - in all three areas. "the Pacific States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_States>, racism was primarily directed against the resident Asian immigrants. Several immigration laws discriminated against the Asians, and at different points the ethnic Chinese or other groups were banned from entering the United States Nonwhites were prohibited from testifying against whites, a prohibition extended to the Chinese by People v. Hall <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_v._Hall>. The Chinese were often subject to harder labor on the First Transcontinental Railroad <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Railroad> and often performed the more dangerous tasks such as using dynamite to make pathways through the mountains. The San Francisco Vigilance Movement <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Vigilance_Movement>, although ostensibly a response to crime and corruption, also systematically victimized Irish immigrants, and later this was transformed into mob violence against Chinese immigrants. Anti-Chinese sentiment was also rife in early Los Angeles, culminating in a notorious 1871 riot in which a mob comprising every other nationality then resident in the city.the ensuing inquests and trials, all the perpetrators either were acquitted, or received only light punishments for lesser offenses, because the testimony of Chinese witnesses was either completely inadmissible, or else considered less credible than that of others. Legal discrimination of Asian minorities was furthered with the passages of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_(United_States)>, which banned the entrance of virtually all ethnic Chinese immigrants into the United States until 1943.World War II, the United States created internment camps for Japanese American citizens <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_American_internment> in fear that they would be used as spies for the Japanese. Currently implemented immigration laws are still largely plagued with national origin-based quotas that is unfavorable to Asian countries due to large populations and historically low U. S. immigration rates.of Latin American ancestry (often categorized as "Hispanic <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic>") come from a wide variety of racial and ethnic backgrounds. Latinos are not all distinguishable as a racial minority.the Mexican-American War <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-American_War> (1846-1848), the U. S. annexed much of the current Southwestern region from Mexico. Mexicans residing in that territory found themselves subject to discrimination. It is estimated that at least 597 Mexicans were lynched between 1848 and 1928 (this is a conservative estimate due to lack of records in many reported lynchings). Mexicans were lynched at a rate of 27.4 per 100,000 of population between 1880 and 1930. This statistic is second only to that of the African American community during that period, which suffered an average of 37.1 per 100,000 populations. Between 1848 to 1879, Mexicans were lynched at an unprecedented rate of 473 per 100,000 of population.The Great Depression <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Great_Depression>, the U. S.government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Repatriation> program which was intended to encourage Mexican immigrants to voluntarily return to Mexico, however, many were forcibly removed against their will. In total, up to one million persons of Mexican ancestry were deported, approximately 60 percent those individuals were actually U. S. citizens.Zoot Suit Riots <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot_Suit_Riots> were vivid incidents of racial violence against Latinos (e. g. Mexican-Americans <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-Americans>) in Los Angeles <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles> in 1943. Naval servicemen stationed in a Latino neighborhood conflicted with youth in the dense neighborhood. Frequent confrontations between small groups and individuals had intensified into several days of non-stop rioting. Large mobs of servicemen would enter civilian quarters looking to attack Mexican American youths, some of whom were wearing zoot suits <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoot_suit>, a distinctive exaggerated fashion popular among that group. The disturbances continued unchecked, and even assisted, by the local police for several days before base commanders declared downtown Los Angeles and Mexican American neighborhoods off-limits to servicemen.public institutions, businesses, and homeowners associations had official policies to exclude Mexican Americans. School children of Mexican American descent were subject to racial segregation in the public school system. In many counties, Mexican Americans were excluded from serving as jurors in court cases, especially in those that involved a Mexican American defendant. In many areas across the Southwest, they lived in separate residential areas, due to laws and real estate company policies.the 1960s, Mexican American youth rallied behind civil rights causes and launched the Chicano Movement <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicano_Movement>.

• 119. Protection of trademarks
  Маркетинг

  (ii) when the later mark is registered for dissimilar goods or services, irrespective of whether a risk of confusion or association may arise on the part of the public, on condition that use of the later mark "without due cause" is likely to take unfair advantage of, or be detrimental to, the distinctive character or the repute of the well-known mark.qualify as "well-known wihthin the meaning of Article 6bis" a mark needs to be well-known in Italy where its reputation will come as a result of its use or promotion in international trade., under Article 17(1)(f), a registered mark that "enjoys a reputation" in Italy constitutes a bar to the valid registration of identical or similar marks when use of the mark "without due case" is likely to take unfair advantage of, or be detrimental to, the distinctive character or the repute of the mark.only provision of the Italian Industrial Property Code that deals with the protection of marks enjoying a reputation is Article 20(1)(c), under which the owner of a registered mark that enjoys a reputation is entitled to prevent unauthorized third parties from using identical or similar signs with respect to dissimilar goods or services, provided that use of the mark "without due case" is likely to take unfair advantage of, or be detrimental to, the distintive character or the repute of the mark.is noteworthy that the Italian Industrial Property Code affords to both marks that are well-known within the meaning of Article 6bis of the Paris Convention and registered marks that enjoy a reputation the power to cancel the registration of identical or similar marks for dissimilar goods or services, while it affords only the latter protection against the unauthorized use of identical or similar marks with respect to dissimilar goods or services. In other words, the Italian Industrial Property Code does not contain any provision that expressly affords protection to unregistered well-known marks within the meaning of Article 6bis of the Paris Convention against the unauthorized use of conflicting signs by third parties as provided by Articles 16(2) and 16(3) of the TRIPS Agreement.is simply because, when dealing with the issue of protection, the Italian Industrial Property Code applies only to registered marks. In practical terms, to prevent the unauthorized use of the conflicting mark, the owner of a well-known mark within the meaning of Article 6bis of the Paris Convention will have only the very light burden of filing an application in Italy before taking action.speaking, if the owner of a well-known mark within the meaning of Article 6bis does not intend to file an application, protection against the unauthorized use of a conflicting mark could be alternatively sought under Article 21(3) of the Italian Industrial Property Code. Under this provision, no one may use a registered trademark after its registration has been declared invalid, when the reason for invalidity involves the unlawfulness of the use of the trademark. According to the most convincing scholarly interpretation of this provision, the above prohibition not only applies with respect to absolute grounds of invalidity, but also when there is a violation of Article 14(1)(c) of the Italian Industrial Property Code (in relation with Article 21(2) of the Italian Industrial Property Code), which prohibits the registration as trademarks of signs when their use would infringe someone elses copyright, industrial property right, or any other exclusive right.any event, it should be remembered that Article 6bis of the Paris Convention and, consequently, Articles 16(2) and 16(3) of he TRIPS Agreement, are automatically applicable in countries that are signatories to these agreements absent a specific, more favourable national provision.additional provisions of interest for the protection of famous trademarks are Articles 8(3) and 19(2) of the Italian Industrial Property Code.8(3) prescribes that, if well-known, personal names, signs used in artistic, literary, scientific, political or sports fields, denominations and acronyms of exhibitions and events, and non-profit bodies and associations, as well as the characteristic emblems thereof, may be registered as trademarks only by those entitled to them, or with their consent. This provision aims at preserving the possibility of exploiting the evocative power of famous names or signs that have not yet been used or registered as trademarks to those who have established their fame.in the case of marks that are well known within the meaning of Article 6bis of the Paris Convention, Article 8(3) grants only the possibility of invalidating marks illegitimately registered. To prevent also the unauthorized use of a conflicting sign, those who have built the fame of these signs will have the burden of registering them as trademarks.19(2) prohibits the registration of a mark filed in bad faith. An important area in which this provision can be invoked is that of marks that are famous abroad but not yet known to Italian consumers. Under these circumstances, in which it is not possible to resort to the protection afforded to marks that are well-known within the meaning of Article 6bis of the Paris Convention, the fact that the mark was well-known in other jurisdictions could play an important role in determining whether the adoption of an identical or similar mark in Italy by a third party was in bad faith and, specifically, was done with the intent of taking unfair advantage of the reputation that would eventually reach our country. Often, the element of bad faith can be inferred by the conduct of the registrant following registration., it has been noted by commentators that European trade mark law makes very little specific provision for the protection of famous trade marks as a separate category of subject matter of legal protection.the implementation of the European Trademark Harmonization Directive a "new" trademark was born in Italy: a trademark is no longer merely an indicator of source; it is also a means of communication, a message bearer, a carrier of goodwill, functions that better reflect the role of trademarks in todays market reality. Well-known trademarks - or better yet, trademarks enjoying a reputation in the words of the Directive - are now recognized as having an intrinsic value, stretching beyond the information they provide to the public with respect to the entrepreneurial origin of the goods and services they distinguish. Although the indication of origin remains the fundamental and primary function of all trademarks, the existence of this additional function has become legally relevant. Thus, trademarks are protected also with respect to this intrinsic value and for which the concept of likelihood of confusion cannot provide appropriate protection.the former Italian Trademark Act, which, as mentioned previously, did not expressly provide for any special protection of famous marks, courts, especially from the late 1970s, tended to hold that the achievement by a mark of a general reputation enabled the broadening of its scope of protection so as to extend also to goods and services not strictly related. "Famous" or "well-known" were only those marks known to the public at large, generally identified as those that:

• 120. PR-кампания по управлению репутацией компании "Максидом"
  Менеджмент

  С одной стороны респонденты довольны качеством товаров и услуг, предлагаемых компанией, но с другой не знают практически ничего о деятельности «Максидом» в области социальной ответственности, в то время как это является одним из преимуществ перед конкурентами. Компания является наиболее узнаваемой и посещаемо в сравнении со своими конкурентами, были отмечены такие положительные характеристики как «надежности» и «понимании» со стороны компании. Но при этом, подчеркивалась «неинновационность», «закрытость», «безынициативность» организации. В качестве пожелания опрашиваемые отмечали возможность посещения магазинов с детьми, что пока является затруднительным из-за непродуманности данного вопроса в магазинах сети. В СМИ деятельность компании не получает должного освещения, большинство практически нет упоминания и информации о ее главных лицах, что явно является пробелом в деятельности по связям с общественность, и недостающими компонентами для полноценной репутации. Получается, что с одной стороны покупатели «Максидом» довольны качеством товаров и услуг, но при этом отмечают ее «закрытости». Что в совокупности компании негативной информацией в СМИ ведет к двойственному восприятию.

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