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1041. The Tower in Tudor Times: A royal prison
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The reign of Edward VI (1547-53) saw no end to the political executions which had begun in his fathers reign; the young Kings protector the Duke of Somerset and his confederates met their death at the Tower in 1552, falsely accused of treason. During Edwards reign the English Church became more Protestant, but the Kings early death in 1553 left the country with a Catholic heir, Mary I (1553-8). During her brief reign many important Protestants and political rivals were either imprisoned or executed at the Tower. The most famous victim was Lady Jane Grey, and the most famous prisoner the Queens sister Princess Elizabeth (the future Elizabeth I). Religious controversy did not end with Marys death in 1558; Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) spent much of her reign warding off the threat from Catholic Europe, and important recusants (people who refused to attend Church of England services) and others who might have opposed her rule were locked up in the Tower. Never had it been so full of prisoners, or such illustrious ones: bishops, archbishops, knights, barons, earls and dukes all spent months and some of them years languishing in the towers of the Tower of London.
1042. The Tower: The 20th Century
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The First World War (1914-18) left the Tower largely untouched; the only bomb to fall on the fortress landed in the Moat. However, the war brought the Tower of London back into use as a prison for the first time since the early 19th century and between 1914-16 eleven spies were held and subsequently executed in the Tower. The last execution in the Tower took place in 1941 during the Second World War (1939-45). Bomb damage to the Tower during the Second World War was much greater: a number of buildings were severely damaged or destroyed including the mid-19th century North Bastion, which received a direct hit on 5 October 1940, and the Hospital Block which was partly destroyed during an air raid in the same year. Incendiaries also destroyed the Main Guard, a late 19th-century building to the south-west of the White Tower. During the Second World War the Tower was closed to the public. The Moat, which had been drained and filled in 1843, was used as allotments for vegetable growing and the Crown Jewels were removed from the Tower and taken to a place of safety, the location of which has never been disclosed. Today the Tower of London is one of the worlds major tourist attractions and 2.5 million visitors a year come to discover its long and eventful history, its buildings, ceremonies and traditions.
1043. The Tretyakov gallery
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The Gallerys centenary was widely celebrated throughout Russia in May 1956. Tretyakov spent his life collecting the works of Russian painters which reflected the spirit and ideas of all progressive intellectual of his day. He began his collection in 1856 with the purchase of «Temptation» (1856) by N.Shilder and «Finnish Smugglers» (1853) by V.Khudyakov. These paintings are on permanent exhibition. In order that his collection better reflect the centuries-old traditions of Russian art he acquired works of various epochs and also began a collection of antique icons. Tretyakov was one of the few people of his time who realised the great intrinsic value of ancient Russian art. He was on friendly terms with many progressive , democratic Russian painters, frequenting their studious, taking an active interest in their work, often suggesting themes for new paintings, and helping them financially. His collection grew rapidly; by 1872 a special building was erected to house it.
1044. The UK education system
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The tests showed that the average Russian school-child is 4-5 years above his or her American or English contemporary.Just the 9-class middle education is enought to enter a good foreign univercity.As far as private schools in UK are concerned i think that they are useful from one side and useless from the other.The costs are very high.If i had 3000 pounds i would not spend them on my education in school.perhaps i would spent them on the education in any univercity but not in school.Nowadays in Russia a lot of private and independent schools were opened.I suppose that they influence better on the moulding the personality but the level of education is lower than in primary comprehensives.As far as education is concerned it must be free of charge from the state or any bany or company.I also suppose that it must be compulsory and every boy and girl MUST have a primary education.But the school must accept pupils on the selective basis with reference to aptitude or ability.In the UK childern are accepted to school on non-selective basis but it is not correct to my mind: intelligent,good, bright pupils must study with lazy and silly ? No. Lets take the Soviet education system as example.There very schools for bright children with a foreign language from the 2nd form and school for silly and lazy with techers,who are always ill.
1045. The uniqueness of the British
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The uniqueness of the British as a people has long been taken for granted by foreign observers and native commentators alike. Visitors from overseas, from Venetian ambassadors in the late fifteenth century, through intellectuals like Voltaire, to American journalists of the twentieth century, have all been convinced of the special quality of British society. This has been equally assumed by modern native chroniclers of the British scene. But the nature or essence of the Britishness of the British is far easier to proclaim than to explain. Some English characteristics upon which both natives and visitors have tended to agree have to do with national psychology: egoism, self-confidence, intolerance of outsiders, deep suspiciousness towards their compatriots, ostentatious wealth, independence, social mobility, love of comfort and a strong belief in private property. Moderation, the avoidance of extremes, the choice of a middle way, are among the essential qualities of Englishness. The two features of English life which from the 15th I century onwards struck almost every observer were the country's wealth and its strong sense of individualism.
1046. The United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. The British Isles consist of two large islands, Great Britain and Ireland, and about five thousands small islands. Their total area is over 244 000 square kilometres. The United Kingdom is one of the world's smaller countries. Its population is over 57 million. About 80 percent of the population is urban. The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Their capitals are London, Cardiff, Edinburgh and Belfast respectively. Great Britain consists of England , Scotland and Wales and does not include Northern Ireland. But in everyday speech Great Britain is used in the meaning of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The capital of the UK. is London. The British Isles are separated from the Continent by the North Sea and the British Channel. The *western coast of Great Britain is washed by the Atlantic Ocean and the Irish Sea.
1047. The United Kingdom of Great Britain
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London is the capital of the UK. It was founded by the Romans in the 1st century AD. In the 11-th century it became the capital of England. In 1215 its citizens won the right to elect their Lord Mayor. The town experienced tremendous growth in trade and population during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. After the Great Fire of 1666 which destroyed three-quarters of London, the town began its extensive building. London became the main centre not only of the country but of the growing British Empire. During the 19-th century London expanded into the suburbs. As a result of it new forms of transport were developed, including the underground railway system. During World War II London was heavily bombed. The reconstruction that followed was of mixed quality. Replacement of industrial enterprises and docks made London a centre of international trade, finance and tourism.
1048. The United Kingdom Of Great Britain And Northern Ireland
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The climate of Great Britain is mild. It is not too hot in summer or too cold in winter. It often rains in England. Rain falls in summer and in winter, in autumn and in spring. Snow falls only in the north and west of the country. The surface of England and Ireland is flat, but Scotland and Wales are mountainous. Many parts of the country have beautiful villages. There are many rivers in Great Britain. The main river is the Thames. Many ships and barges go up and down the river. The longest river is Severn. It is 350 kilometres long.
1049. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Nothern Ireland. The land and the people.
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The flag of the UK is known as the Union Jack. It has its history. It all began in 1603 when Scotland was joined to England and Wales. The flag is made up of 3 crosses. The upright cross is the Cross of St.Jeorge the patron saint of England. The white diagonal cross is the cross of St.Andrew, the patron saint of Scotland. The red diagonal cross is the cross is the cross of St.Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. All of them are on the blue background.
1050. The US Economy after September 11th. Decline or Rapid Growth? (Экономика США после 11-ого сентября. Снижение или Быстрый Рост?)
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Economic data published since September 11th have, not surprisingly, been gloomy. America's industrial production fell in September by 1%. That was its 12th successive month of decline, the longest unbroken fall since 1945. The current manufacturing activity had plunged to its lowest level since February 1991. The 5.8% output loss of the past 12 months is already greater than in the recession of 1990-91. Retail sales also fell in September, by 2.4%, consumers cut back their spending in September by the largest amount in nearly 15 years. To cope with sagging sales, manufacturers have sharply cut back production and shed workers. The nation's unemployment rate leaped from 4.9% in September to 5.4% in October, the biggest one-month jump in more than 21 years. This is the highest unemployment rate since December 1996. 415,000 jobs were eliminated during the month, which represented the biggest cut in payrolls since May 1980. Manufacturing, airlines, travel agencies, hotels, retailers were among those suffering big losses. ''Companies are in survival mode and they are cutting jobs to control costs,'' said economist Ken Mayland of Clearwork Economics. ''The tragic events of September 11th and their aftermath probably tipped the economy into recession. People are waiting for the other shoe to drop.'' There is one more indirect evidence of the tough state of staff policy in American companies: many of them are planning to cancel traditional Christmas Parties due to their poor financial condition.
1051. The US Educational System
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Students go to school five days a week. They get to and from school by a school bus. A typical school day in America starts at 7.30 AM with the Pledge of Allegiance in which the US flag and the whole nation is glorified. Then follows the homeroom period during which a homeroom teacher calls the roll and the principal makes his/her announcements over the intercom. Every day students usually have seven periods which last 50-55, sometimes 45 minutes. In some schools there are four periods lasting 90 minutes. There are 2-5 minute passings between periods and a break of 30 minutes for lunch
1052. The USA: its history, geography and political system
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Traditionally the USA is divided into several regions:
- New England, made up of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island.
- The Middle Atlantic, comprising New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland.
- The South, which runs from Virginia south to Florida and west as far as central Texas. This region also includes West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Louisiana, and parts of Missouri and Oklahoma.
- The Midwest, a broad collection of states sweeping westward from Ohio to Nebraska and including Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, parts of Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas, and eastern Colorado.
- The Southwest, made up of western Texas, portions of Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and the southern interior part of California.
- The West, comprising Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Utah, California, Nevada, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, and Hawaii.
1053. The war of the roses
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Not only did York detest Somerset because of his favouritism with the king, but he also detested the fact that he had been given the office he had previously held in France and the funds to support it, despite his inability as a soldier. York's fears over the management of the campaign in France was soon realised, as the war began to go badly for the English. The Duke of Somerset was personally responsible for the surrender of the strategic town of Rouen which subsequently led to the fall of Normandy to Charles VII of France. Because of this, Somerset became distinctly unpopular at home. However, because he retained the king's favour, he maintained his prestigious position at court. In June 1451, Bordeaux in France, and Gascony, were lost to the French. This was disastrous news for the English and the King, Henry VI, took the loss very badly. York in turn, was quick to blame Somerset for the disaster and, with support for the king and his adherents at such a low point (due mainly to English failings in France), York, decided to risk all and attempt to wrest control from the king by force of arms and arrest the Duke of Somerset, thus removing him from his position as the king's most senior advisor.
1054. The Weather and Climate Fluctuations
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'Funny weather we are having' is a statement of the obvious we have used for generations as a greeting. When the deep cold lasts long and heavy snow and blizzards give us the shivers we replace "funny" with something stronger, such as "terrible", "ghastly". At times like these people ask what is happening to the weather. So we go to the experts, who tells us, in language appropriate to the subject, what happened yesterday, what is happening today, and what might happen in the next few years. Weather and climate specialists all over the world have amassed a vast quantity of information. They can describe what is happening around us. With satellites they can forecast more accurately what might happen in the immediate future. Their research has produced evidence of why past climatic changes took place.
1055. The weather in Great Britain
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The weather very often changes in Great Britain. You can never have the same kind of weather for a long time. In spring, for example, sunshine and showers follow each other so often during the day that an umbrella or a rain-coat are really necessary in Great Britain. The weather in spring is generally mild, but sometimes the days are really cold. The summer is not so cold as on the continent, and warm days in autumn are beautiful. In winter they have all sorts of weather. Sometimes it rains and sometimes it snows. Still, in Great Britain it is never so cold in winter as in our country and they do not get so much snow there as we get here in Russia. The rivers and lakes are seldom covered with ice. As the ice, if there is any, is not thick enough, they seldom go skating on the rivers in Great Britain.
1056. The Welsh language
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From the seventeenth century, in the era of industrialisation in Welsh language changes took place. The growth of industry allowed Wales to sustain far more people than had been possible under the old agricultural economy. Some of them came from beyond the borders of Wales. In 1851, the Welsh population included 115000 people born in England and 20000 born in Ireland. Of course they took their languages with them, which little by little mixed with Welsh. But most of areas were Welsh-speaking and, in colonising their own country the Welsh brought their language from the countryside to the towns. Thats why alone among the Celtic languages, Welsh has had a considerable degree of success in becoming an urban tongue. By 1851, large numbers of Welsh speakers lived in mass urban communities in which the language could be used in a new range of activities. Also in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries was widely practised in Wales the coining of new words, which has been greatly stimulated by the needs of modern society. Cyfrifiaduron (computers) with their maddal medd (software) and caledwedd (hardware) are one of the many fields in which a new Welsh terminology has been invented. Coinages such as darllediad (broadcast), tonfedd (wave length) and orian brig (peak hours) trip naturally off the tongues of broadcasters. Sports commentaries lead to a wide range of neologisms, with those for rugby (the work of Eric Davies) being particularly apt and idiomatic. Words old and new have been collected in the most ambitions lexicographical project yet undertaken in Wales.
1057. The working day of an engineer
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One of my friend, Dmity Shevelev, lives in Vladivostok now though he was born in Nakhodka. Some years ago he graduated from the one of our institutions and became an engineer. Now he lives near his office. He usually walks there. He works on weekdays. I cant say that he work hard, but all his mates like him because he is a good mixer or, as you may say, he is very communicable person. He doesnt work on Saturday or Sunday. His working day usually lasts for eight hours. His duties are to answer all incoming letters and calls, to meet with different specialists, to help young engineers. He often tells me that he likes his job. I usually meet him after the work and we speak about life. He is very glad that he found such work where he can show all his talents. Though there is a difference between our ages, we have much in common. He is among my best friends.
1058. Theatre
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Last time I was in the theater on the play, wrote by Maugham. It was named “Theatre”. It was first night. But all performed so realistically. So true to life that I began to feel for them like in real life. All the play, the acting, the staging were beyond any description. The audience in times couldnt tear their eyes away from the stage. All the actors had wonderful dresses and the scenery was out of ordinary. The spectators were deeply impressed by the play and the cast. I have never seen the audience applauded so much before. Many people couldnt help throwing flowers on the stage. It was a play I would remember for a long. In the beginning of the story she was young, unpracticed actress. She worried before the performance: her heart was beating, hands were crowing, but when she came into the stage, her voice became firm. (“But now, after having passed through the ordeal so many times, she had acquired certain nonchalance”). Years passed and we see Julia: she is 46. But she still has lovely figure, long legs, wasp waist, and rich low voice. She went through the trial of love, passion, devotion and work. It seems to me, that the author sympathizes to her, because she managed with each difficult situation. She became the “cold” actress. She knows that she was the best, what she had to do to stay the best. In my opinion she learned to live as she likes and at the same time she made everybody happy. Julia was a crack jack, so she didnt let the emotions take over her. She lived the life of her hero, but also the actress always remembered her teachers words: “Dont be natural, only seem natural”.
1059. Theatre in Great Britain
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The former stages classical and modem plays from all countries; the latter presents Shakespearean plays in Stratford-upon-Avon and a mixed repertoire in London. Many non-repertoire theatres outside London present all kinds of drama and many also put on variety shows and other entertainment. Music in all its forms pop music, folk music, jazz, light music and brass bands plays an important role in British cultural life.
1060. Theatre, Music and Cinema
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Usually we see films either in the cinema or on TV. But from time to time I go to the cinema. My favorite film is “Romeo and Juliet”. The Italian director Franco Zeffirelli, produced a masterpiece in this adaptation. The costumes are brilliant, the actors are wonderful, the music by is perfect, and the lines are delivered beautifully. The movie starred Leonard Whiting (a British actor, who played Romeo) and Olivia Hussey (Juliet). They were young when they filmed the Classic, 17 and 15 years, respectably. This movie is one of the most realistic interpretations of William Shakespeare's Tragedy.

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