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Научно-исследовательская работа студентов: Материалы юбилейной 60-й научной студенческой конференции. Петрозаводск: Изд-во ПетрГУ, 2008. 325 с. Isbn 978-5-8021-0880-2

Вид материалаНаучно-исследовательская работа

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Секция «История и иностранные языки»
Movement of populares in rome
History of a postcard
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Секция «История и иностранные языки»


FIRST WAVE OF RUNNING ITALY ON FASCIST LINES

Belonin D.
Suprevisor — senior tutor Vikulina O. V.

The report is devoted to examination of Italian fascism during the period from 1922 to 1925, or during the first wave of running Italy on fascist lines.

In 1922, Benito Mussolini, the leader of small political movement in recent past, became the head of mighty political organization, popular among the Italians and supported by the government. 1922 was a year of great importance for the history of Italian fascism — in October Benito Mussolini ordered his followers (members of ‘Action Squads’) to march on Rome.

March on Rome can be considered in many different ways but it is significant that in general this event>
To facilitate the analyses, we should divide the viewed period into two parts: 1) the first stage lasted from March on Rome till the murder of Giacomo Matteotti; 2) the second stage lasted from Matteotti's murder till parliamentary speech of Benito Mussolini in 1925.

During the first stage positions of fascists were strong enough — in 1923 Parliament even passed an electoral law of Giacomo Acerbo. According to this law every party which obtained 25 % on the election, took two thirds of parliamentary seats — in that way it was a guarantee for the fascist majority in Parliament

In June 1924, when the new Parliament convened, socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti denounced the fascists of the use of force in the recent election and was immediately murdered after that. Matteotti’s murder lead to an outcry against Mussolini in Italy. Parties in opposition left parliament and it was called ‘Aventine Secession’.

However, this formation could not really stuck up to Mussolini and made his dismissal real — because almost right from the start there was a split between follower of determined action (communists and certain parts of liberals) and followers of wait-and-see attitude (representatives of other parties).

When Mussolini understood that the opposition was too weak and the King was still on his side — he made his famous speech before Parliament. On October, 3 1925, Mussolini took every responsibility for Mateotti's murder and declared the end of representative democracy in Italy.

^ MOVEMENT OF POPULARES IN ROME
IN THE MID-IInd CENTURY BC

Gololobova M.
Suprevisor — senior tutor Vikulina O. V.

The report is devoted to the movement of populares in Rome in the middle of the II cent. BC. The growth of crisis of Rome as a city state and the foundation of the Mediterranean Roman Empire are the scientific concernments of the theme. Evaluation of the role of populares and characteristic of people, who played a certain role in the movement and analyses of their bills are the objects of the report. Firstly, some information about the situation in Rome in the mentioned period of time should be given and the main reasons of the movement should be emphasized; secondly, the main points of the Civil war in Rome and public works of Gracchi and their rivals should be characterized; and, finally, the main results should be reckoned up.

A public work of Tiberius Gracchus is the first stage of the Civil war. There is a close connection between the events in Sicily and the complicated movement concerned with the name of Gracchi. Certainly, not merely a rebellion of slaves made Tiberius Gracchus to advance his project of the revival of peasantry. Nevertheless, a perception of danger represented by lacking of civil rights and violently exploitable crowd to prosperous people became a motive for inducement to finally draw up his agrarian bill.

The movement was caused by both economic and political reasons. In the political sphere the movement was a struggle of democracy against nobilitas for the authority and democratization of Roman society. Conservative-Utopian views of some part of nobilitas, which sought by means of the agrarian reform to stop a development of slavery and the revival of old peasantry, figured prominently in the movement’s ideology.

Tiberius introduced a bill, but he run up against a strong opposition of the Senate, which was a cause of his death. With the death of Tiberius Gracchus his affair did not perish. A group of aristocrats that sympathized with his plans continued a work of the commission that was created by him and during 4 or 5 years no less than 75 000 people again obtained lots and were put on the list of citizens. And a public work of Gaius fairly was the sequel of the policy of Tiberius and was defined by tasks set, but unsettled by his brother. A destruction of the Senate was his main aim.

Gaius came out in a favor of a deliberated plan of reforms and, first of all, ensured himself the majority of the Popular Meeting. The opposition for struggle against Gaius decided to respond for each of his suggestions by counter-offer, more radical by sight, and in this way to deprive Gaius his popularity among urban crowd. For this matter Marcus Livius Drusus was selected. The ranks of followers of Gracchus quickly thinned out and Gaius was killed in 121 BC.

After the death of Gaius Gracchus the Senate reestablished its lost rights. Gracchus defined the main problems of that time, which Rome had to solve. The Gracchus’ appearance intensified social antagonisms of Roman society. The problems which were advanced by Gracchus still more aggravated the crisis and the democratic movement, led by Lucius Appuleus Saturninus and Gaius Servilius Glacius, became a continuation of the Gracchi movement.

^ HISTORY OF A POSTCARD

Kalacheva S.
Suprevisor — senior tutor Tatarina T. M.

Nowadays, sending postcards by mail is not as popular as it was 20, 50 or even 100 years ago. At the age of computers and high tech it is more suitable to send e-mail, sms or just make a phone call instead of sending postcard. But some time ago it was true art which is almost forgotten in our days.

In an explanatory dictionary of Russian language you can find a definition of a picture postcard.

1) a post card for an open letter (without envelop);

2) a card with a picture.

As far as we know, there are two versions of how a modern picture postcard was invented. According to the first version, the first picture postcard appeared in 1870, in France at the time of Franco-Prussian war. There was a lack of post paper and one bookseller, Leon Benardeau, offered to replace paper by a piece of cardboard. Some soldiers and officers began to draw pictures on the one side of a postcard. After that Leon Benardeau decorated the address-side of postcards with patriotic vignette. It was the first French postcard. According to the second version, the first picture postcard was produced in Oldenburg, in July, 1870, at the day of German Army mobilization. The artilleryman with a cannon was painted at this postcard.

A standard size of a postcard (90 × 140 mm) was fixed in 1874 at the post congress in Bern. The first picture postcards were black-and-white, some time later color graphics and photo postcards appeared. Picture postcards were very popular because of a low price and possibility to congratulate quickly relatives and friends. Moreover, there was the possibility to collect them.

After becoming popular in Europe the postcard became popular in our country. The first postcard in Russia was produced by postal authorities in 1871. One side of a card contained arms, stamp and place for an address, another side was for writing a letter. Picture postcards in Russia appeared only in 1898. Since that moment picture postcard has become an integral part of Russian culture. They were printed not only with lithography, serigraphy and other means (which are forgotten now), but on special postcard paper with beautiful lacy border.

Almost every publisher, printing office and photo saloon produced picture postcards to orthodox holidays such as Christmas and Easter. Furthermore, genre postcards, postcards to Name-day, photo cards with views of Russian towns had great popularity too.

It is a pity that nowadays we use the Internet, mobile phones and other high-tech gadgets instead of postcards to communicate or write letters. Of course, it is much faster and much more convenient, but I think you’ll agree with me it is rather difficult to keep and hand over part of your soul in an sms or e-mail message.