Курс лекций по лексикологии. Lexocology it’s subject and brunches. Word and it’s meaning

Вид материала

Awfully nice
To happen – to occur – to befall – to chance Look – appearance – complexion – countenance
Curious – responsive
Stylistic synonyms.
First & foremost
Живой – полуживой – полумертвый – мертвый
Холодный – прохладный – теплый – горячий
Органический – неорганический
Белый – небелый
Продавать – покупать
I’m talking to you. You are writing.
Bright day
Red revolution
It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question
AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet
It’s high time to do smth our mind, ready-made
To beer or not to beer (creates humorist effect)
“The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”
The Rubicon is crossed
A hard nut to crack 2. Nominative –communicative The ice is broken
...
Полное содержание

Подобный материал:

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Awfully nice

Synonymy.

A synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in English they exist in superabundance.

There no two absolutely identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an occurence are different.

Senses of synonyms are identical in respect of central semantic trades but differ in respect of minor semantic trades.

Classification:

1. Total synonyms

an extremely rare occurence

Ulman: “a luxury that language can hardly afford.”

M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past usually acquire different meanings and are no longer interchangeable).

Ex.: бегемот – гиппопотам

2. Ideographic synonyms.

They bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content.

Ex.: to ascent – to mount – to climb

To happen – to occur – to befall – to chance

Look – appearance – complexion – countenance

3. Dialectical synonyms.

Ex.: lift – elevator

Queue – line

Autumn – fall

4. Contextual synonyms.

Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become synonyms in a certain context.

Ex.: tasteless – dull

Active – curious

Curious – responsive

Synonyms can reflect social conventions.

Ex.:

clever	bright	brainy	intelligent	Dever-clever
neutral	Only speaking about younger people by older people	Is not used by the higher educated people	Positive connotation	Stylistically remarked

5. Stylistic synonyms.

Belong to different styles.

child	Infant		Kid
neutral	elevated		colloquial
To die		To kick the bucket

Synonymic condensation is typical of the English language.

It refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to description more vivid.

Ex.: save & sound

Lord & master

First & foremost

Safe & secure

Stress & strain

By force & violence

It is deeply rooted in the history of English language

It was customary to use French borrowings together with their native synonyms.

They are very often characterized by alliteration, rhymes, idioms, etc.

Antonymy.

Antonyms – words of opposite meaning.

In an antonym pair only one member is marked (the use of marked member is more restricted)

Ex.: big – small

We may ask: “how big is it?”

Not: “how small is it?”

May: “this bed is too big for my room”

Not: “this bed is sufficiently small for my room”

Small is marked.

Nikitin: “Antonymy is based on the opposition of features (признаки).

It is a kind of a way of word structuring. Three conditions for two features to be opposite:

1. чтобы были несовместимы в вещах (incompatible in things)

Ex.: малолетние – неженатые

(underage – unmarried)

≠ they are not antonyms

2. чтобы признаки были однородны (similar, homogeneous features)

Ex.: красный – зеленый

(red – green)

≠ not antonyms

Белый – все цвета	antonyms
Черный – нет цвета

3. чтобы 2 признака покрывали признаковое пространство

(2 features must cover associative area)

Ex.: живой = мертвый - antonyms

Живой ≠ полумертвый - not antonyms

Живой – полуживой – полумертвый – мертвый

Частично антонимичные

Антонимичны

(alive – half dead – dead)

Холодный - горячий

Холодный – прохладный – теплый – горячий

(cold – chilly – cool – warm – hot)

Признаковое пространство должно быть упорядочено. (Associative area must be regulated and put in order)

Противоположные признаки – симметричны друг другу.(Opposite features-symmetrical to each other)

Nikitin:

qualitative & quantitative (качественные – количественные)

трусливый – храбрый легкий – тяжелый

apprehensive – brave light – heavy

Quantitative antonyms

легкий тяжелый (нарастание признака)

feature increase

Qualitative antonyms

хороший плохой (нет нарастания признака)

no feature increase

one-root & different roots (according to their morphological structure)

хороший – нехороший хороший – плохой

- logical classification

contrary	contradictory
There is a middle term between them	There is no middle term between them
Хороший – нехороший – плохой	Органический – неорганический

Intentional & extensional

intentional	Extensional
Живой – мертвый;красивый – некрасивый	Белый – небелый
У каждого слова есть интенсиональное основание	Т.к. слово “небелый” не существует в языке автономно, существует только тогда, когда я знаю, что такое “белый”. У слова “небелый” нет интенсионала.

Ex.: mother

stable, invariable features – intension

(родитель, женского пола)

a female parent - intension

Intension is some notion formed by class distinctions, always stable & invariable.

Extensions in this case are: biological mother

step-mother

mother-in-law

motherland

surrogate mother

godmother

It is the range of applicability (применимость), always variable & individual.

ship

intension: a vehicle used for moving on water
extension: passenger ship

sailing ship

battle ship (военный корабль) man of war

cargo ship

Antonyms are words which have in their meaning a qualitative feature & can, therefore, be regarded as semantically opposite.

Unlike synonyms, antonyms do not differ stylistically. – some scholars

- moot (дискуссионный, спорный) question, controversial

Conversives (or conversive pairs), which are not antonyms but are semantically opposed.

Conversives denote one & the same situation, but viewed from different points of view.

In most cases, conversives are verbs.

Завещать – наследовать

Давать – брать

Жениться – выходить замуж

Продавать – покупать

Конверсивные признаки взаимно предполагают друг друга в отличие от антонимов.

1.Короткий- длинный – антонимы

2.Продавать – покупать – конверсивы

1. Т.к. А является коротким не потому, что В является длинным

2. А является покупателем, т.к. В является продавцом (взаимно предполагают друг друга).

Природа конверсивности иная, чем антонимия

Exciting – excited – conversives

Amusing – amused – conversives

Антонимы – симметричны, конверсивы – несимметричны.

Курбякова и Кацнельсон:

4 критерия:

1). Субстантивность, предикатность

Ex.: darkness – light dark – light

hatred – love often – seldom

cry – laughter to cry – to laugh

male – female

Вещные и признаковые у Никитина

2). Статичность, динамичность

static – dynamic

Ex.: man – woman arrival - departure

evil – good increase – decrease

3). Приватность, эквиполентность

privacy – equipollency

Привативная оппозиция характеризуется наличием признака одного члена и отсутствием у другого.

Ex.: poverty – wealth (количественные у Никитина)

lie – truth

Эквиполентная оппозиция один член характеризуется одним признаком, другой член – другим признаком, соотносящемуся с первым.

Ex.: man – woman (качественные у Никитина)

cry – laughter

hatred – love

4). Бинарность, градуальность

binary – gradual

↓ ↓

только › 2 членов

2 члена

Ex.: бинарность

lie – truth (contradictory у Никитина)

arrive – depart

male – female

градуальность

to hate – not to hate – to be indifferent – to love

Gradual opposition is characterized by the gradability of some qualitative feature.

Binary opposition is characterized by lack of any gradability, because the words express contradictory notions.

Privative is based on the idea of markedness, the unmarked member – more widely used.

Ex.: old – young How old are you?

marked unmarked Not: How young are you?

Not all antonyms show this marked/unmarked distinction.

Equipollent (equal) – both members are logically equal, each of them has a feature opposite to the feature of the other member of the opposition.

Никитин: one-root – derivational antonyms

different roots – absolute antonyms.

Phraseology.

Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks functioning as whole (consisting › 1 word).

In any language there are certain restrictions imposed upon co-occurence of words.

They can be connected with linguistic factors or the ties in the extra-linguistic reality.

3 types of lexical combinability of words:

1). Free combination

Grammatical properties of words are the main factor of their combinability.

Ex.: I’m talking to you. You are writing.

Free combinations permit substitution of any of its elements without semantic change of the other element.

2). Collocations.

Ex.: to commit a murder

Bread & butter

Dark night

Blue sky

Bright day

They are the habitual associations of a word in a language with other particular words. Speakers become accustomed to such collocations.

Very often they are related to the referential & situational meaning of words.

Sometimes there are collocations, which are removed from the reference to extra-linguistic reality.

(collocations involving

colour words)

Ex.: to be green with jealousy

Red revolution

3). Idioms

Idioms are also collocations, because they consist of several words that tend to be used together, but the difference – we can’t guess the meaning of the whole idiom from the meanings of its parts.

This criterion is called the degree of semantic isolation.

In different types of idioms – it is different.

Ex.: to cry a blue murder = to complain loudly

This classification of idioms according to their structure:

1. Fixed idioms

a) fixed regular idioms

It’s a 60-thousand dollar question = difficult question

b) fixed irregular (can be varied on the grammatical level)

to have a bee in one’s bonnet (She has.., I have...)

2. Variable (varied on the lexical level)

Ex.: to add fuel to the fire/flame

to mind one’s own business /to mind one business

to nap a cat’s nap / to have a short nap (вздремнуть)

dialectal: BrE: to have a skeleton in the cupboard

AmE: to have a skeleton on the closet

Semantic classification:

2 criteria:

1). The degree of semantic isolation

2). The degree of disinformation

1. Opaque in meaning (трудный для понимания)

the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to produce the meaning of the whole.

Ex.: to kick the bucket = to die

It contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression

The degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

phraseological fusions

2. Semi-opaque

one component preserves its direct meaning

Ex.: to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить ответственность

phraseological unities

3

. Transparent

both components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires figurative sense

Ex.: to see the light = to understand

phraseological combinations

There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying).

Ex.: Curiosity killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back

I

dioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:

How do you do?
Good-bye (God be with you)
How about a drink?

Lots of clichés, quotations.

Clichés form a notable part of he public speaking style. They use clichés because of the intellectual laziness or in the hope of appealing to emotions of smb.

A talk based on clichés is easier to produce.

Ex.: to see the light this expressions are store in

It’s high time to do smth our mind, ready-made

Quotations:

To support our arguments, to add some prominence

Ex.: “I have a dream” M.L.King

“To be or not to be” Shakespeare

They may be clipped or shortened.

Ex.: To beer or not to beer (creates humorist effect)

To bomb or not to bomb

It was the last straw that broke the camels back.

Sources of idioms:

1. from our everyday life

Ex.: to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth

to sail under false colour (прятать истинное лицо)

to loose track of smb (потерять кого-либо из виду, давно не видеть)

a leopard can(’t) change its spots

2. from the Bible

Ex.: black sheep, lost sheep (заблудшая овца)

To cast pearls before swine (метать бисер перед свиньями)

3. World literature

Ex.: to fight against Windmills

an ugly duckling (Danish) – гадкий утенок

4. different languages

Ex.: to loose face (Chinese)

“The course of true love has never run smooth” Shakespeare “The 12^th night”

“The course of true reforms has never run smooth in Russia” – “the Times”

5. from history

Ex.: to cross the Rubicon

Labours of Hercules

To bell the cat

Кунин Classification:

1. Одновершинные (with one peak)

one peak phraseological units

one form word

one notional

Ex.: to leave for good

By heart

At bay – быть в отчаянном положении

2. Phrasemes with the structure of subordinate or coordinate word combination.

Ex.: a bitter pill to swallow

All the world & his wife

3. Partly predicative

a word + subordinate clause

Ex.: It was the last straw that broke the camels back

4. Verbal with (infinitive, passive)

Ex.: to eat like a wolf

The Rubicon is crossed

5. Phrasal units with a simple or complex sentence structure

Ex.: There is a black sheep in every flock.

It was the last straw that broke the camel’s back

Koonin: “Structural-semantic classification”.

1. Nominative

A hard nut to crack

2. Nominative –communicative

The ice is broken

3. Interjectional & modal

(emotions, feelings)

Oh, my eye! (= Oh, my God!)

As sure as eggs is eggs (просто, как 2х2)

4. Communicative (proverbs, sayings)

There is no smoke without fire.

Nominative:

Substantive: crocodile tears
Adjective: as mad as a hatter, as cool as a cucumber
Adverbial: by & by, to & fro
Verbal: to live like a lord

Word formation (словообразование)

Is a branch of science of the language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new lexical items (new unities, new words)

It’s a process of forming words by combining root & affixal morphemes.

According to certain patterns specific for the language or without any outward means.

(conversion)

2 major groups of word formation:

1) words, formed as grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types: compounding(словосложение), prefixation, suffixation, conversion, back derivation)

2) words, which are not grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs.

Ex.: expressive symbolism, blending, clipping, rhyme & some others.

Common for both groups is that a new word is based on synchronic relationship between morphemes.

Different types of word formation:

COMPOUNDING

Is joining together 2 or more stems.

Types:

1) without a connecting element

headache, heartbreak

2) with a vowel or consonant as a linking element

speedometer, craftsman

3) with a preposition or conjunction as a linking element

down-and-out (в ужасном положении, опустошенный)

son-in-law

Compounds can be classified according to their structure:

consisting of simple stem

heartbreak

compounds where at least one stem is a derived one

football player

where one stem is clipped

Xmas

H-bag (handbag)

- where one of the elements is also a compound

wastepaper basket

compound nouns, adjectives, verbs.

There are also the so called reduplicative compounds:

Tick-tick, chow-chow

PREFIXATION

Prefixes are such particles that can be prefixed to full words. But are themselves not with independent existence.

Native prefixes have developed out of independent words, there is a small number of them.

a-

be-

mid-

fore-

mis-

Prefixes of foreign origin have come into the language ready-made

Some scholars: the system of English word formation was entirely upset by the Norman Conquest.

Normans have paved the way for the non-Germanic trend the language has taken since that time.

From French English borrowed many words with suffixes & prefixes, they became assimilated in the language & started to be used in word building. It led to enormous cutdown of the traditional word formation out of native material. Old prefixes (some of them) disappeared forever (too weak phonetically)

Æt-

Ed-

Nowadays English has no prefixed equivalents for some German prefixes

Er-

Ver-

Zer-

A lot of borrowed prefixes in English:

Auto-

Demi-

Mono-

Multi-

Semi-

Post-

SUFFIXATION

A suffix is a derivative final element which is or was productive in forming new words.

It has semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent speech use.

The contact of English with foreign languages has led to the adoption of countless foreign words which started to be used in word building.

→ we have many hybrid types of derivatives.

A hybrid is a word different elements of which are of etymologically different origin.

2 groups:

1) A foreign word is combined with a native affix

- full

- less

- ness

clearness, faithless, faithful

2) Foreign affixes are added to native words

- ance

- al

- ity

- able

As for the first 3 they have never become productive in English; - able was assimilated in English very early and has became productive in many words.

Eatable

Loveable

Semi suffixes are elements which stand midway between full words & suffixes

like
worthy
way
wise

a Godlike creature

trustworthy

clockwise

midway

6 ways of suffixing in English:

1) Derivation by native suffixes without changes in stress, vowels, consonants

Godlike

2) Derivation by borrowed suffix without changes in stress, vowels, consonants

loveable

3) Derivation by imported suffixes, which involves the change in

Japan Japanese

4) The suffix is added to a Latin stem which closely related to an English word

science – scientist

5) The suffix is added to a Latin stem, which has no English equivalent

lingua – lingual

6) Words borrowed separately but have the same patterns of word building

candidate – candidacy

president – presidency

This is called correlative derivation.

CONVERSION

(zero derivation)

A certain stem is used for the formation of a categorically different word without a derivative element being added.

Bag – to bag

Back – to back

Bottle – to bottle

This specific pattern is very productive in English

The most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun

To take off – a take off

Conversion can be total or partial

Partial: the then president (тогдашний)

An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.

Total: work – to work

BACK DERIVATION

Is deraving a new word, which is morphologically simpler from a more complex word.

A babysitter – to babysit

Television – to televise

Sometimes back derivation is defined as the singling out of a stem from a word which is wrong regarded as a derivative.

Cases of back derivation are rather rare in English

PHONETIC SYMBOLISM

Is using characteristic speech sounds for name giving.

Very often we imitate by the speech sounds what we hear:

tinkle
splash
tap

Sounds can be emotionally expressive.

[f],[p] in initial position very often express scorn, disapproval, contempt, disgust.

Ex.: fie (disapproval)

Fidle (dishonest practice)

Fidling (silly)

Poof (male, homosexual)

But not all the sounds are expressive.

[k],[g],[d]

[l] is often used in diminutive & pet suffixes

Ex.: darling, little, ugly duckling

CLIPPING

Consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts.

Mathematics – maths

Laboratory – lab

Captain – cap

Gymnastics – gym

3 types:

1) The first part is left (the commonest type)

advertisement – ad

2) The second part is left

telephone – phone

airplane – plane

3) A middle part is left

influenza – flu

refrigerator – fridge

Accepted by the speakers of the language clipping can acquire grammatical categories (used in plural forms)

BLENDING

Is blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word)

Smoke + fog = smog

Breakfast + lunch = brunch

Smoke + haze = smaze (дымка)

- addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of two words combined by a conjunction “and”

smog → smoke & fog

- blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.

Positron – positive electron

Medicare – medical care

WORD MANUFACTURING

A word or word combination that appears or especially coined by some author. But it doesn’t name a new object or doesn’t express a new concept

Sentence – sentenceness

“I am English & my Englishness is in my vision” (Lawrence)

Word manufacturing by children:

Влюбчивый – вьбчивый

Барельеф – баба рельеф

COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS

Is linguistic analysis of the semantic structure of a word. It can be a monosemantic word or lexico-semantic variant of polysemantic word.

The meaning of any word can be represented in a form of a structure, semantic components of the words’ meaning form a hierarchy.

Is an investigation of the structural organization & interrelations of the semantic components of the words’ meaning.

Lexical meaning is a complicated dynamic whole & its constituency are semes.

A seme is a minimal unit of sense, an atom of lexical semantics distinguished on the basis of oppositions by method of componential analysis.

A seme is not expressed in a word in any material unit but it’s revealed & singled out through interrelations of the word with other words on a paradigmatic & syntagmatic levels.

The sem. structure of a word can be represented graphically:

Father = human

Adult

Male semes

Parent

“+”

1) Componential analysis is very popular in linguistics, it shows a heterogeneity, complexity of lexical meaning.

2) Componential analysis helps to differentiate between words (especially between synonyms)

the difference between small & little lies in the presence of an additional seme (pleasant, nice) in the word “little” → not absolute synonyms.

3) Componential analysis helps to explain semantic derivation

(metaphor, metonymy, etc.)

4) Componential analysis to create the so called language of semantic primitives – minimal units of sense.

“-“

as soon we start to describe the semantic structure of a word we start to describe the referent dog=animal

TYPOLOGY OF SEMES.

Semes differ in many aspects:

the role they play & the place they occupy in their structure.
Interrelations between each other
Dependence of all the context
Participation in formation an actual meaning
The role they play in secondary nomination or in semantic

1) Cognitive & pragmatic semes

“dog” cognitive semes – living being

- animal

- domestic

- carnivorous (плотоядный)

pragmatic semes – friend

- devoted

- understanding

- silent

2) Extralinguistically bound & linguistically bound

(appear as a result of pragmatic (mostly cognitive,

factors, show the attitude of part & parcel of

language users towards word lexical meaning)

reference)

fascist – negative connotations, extralinguistic bound

among extralinguistically semes can be cultural bound.

The English notion of freedom is negatively oriented

Freedom – non-imposition, the possibility of choice

(if you are free you can be sure that you will be left alone,

won’t be imposed anybody’s wills)

Russian conception of freedom – the idea of absence of outer restrictions.

3) Central & peripheral

Central – belonging to the core of the word meaning (belong to the intention)

Father – male, parent, human

adult (peripheral)

4) Categorial & non-categorial

(hypersemes) (hyposemes)

bathe – swim for pleasure or for the medical reasons

swim – through water

float – to stay on a surface without sinking

sail – in a ship or boat

1 hyperseme – to move in the water

but hyposemes are different

they show – type of movement, use of transport means, type of agent

5) Actual & potential

potential can be generated in some particular content

THE STRUCTURE OF LEXICAL MEANING

According professor Nikitin

Meaning

Implicational Semiotic

Pragmatic Cognitive

Extension Cognitive

denotative significative

Semiotic meaning is arbitrary and conventional, especially established for the sake of communication. No link between the sign and the referent existing in reality

Ex.: winter (December - February); dog

Implicational meaning is based on natural linkage of objects in reality.

Winter – cold, snow, frost (implicational meaning) – associations connected with a name.

Implicational meaning is culture bound, territory bound

4 types of implicational meaning:

1) Rigid implication (жесткий имплекционал)

highly probable features of winter (for Russia – холод, мороз)

2) Strong implication

probable features of winter – реки замерзают

3) Weak implication

these are unlikely features of winter – rain, warm weather

4) Negative implication

features that can never be applied to this referent

green grass, hot weather – not winter

in stylistic it is called oxymoron

Cognitive meaning represents the information about the world (the referent)

Pragmatic component presents our subjunctive attitude towards the world and its elements (depends on our life experience)

Both of them or only one of them is represented in the structure of lexical meaning.

1) Most words are pragmatically neutral (only cognitive component in the structure of their meaning)

chair, desk, pen – they are free from expressing subjunctive attitude to the referent.

2) “fascist” – cognitive and pragmatic components

3) sometimes cognitive components are switched off & pragmatic component plays the leading role

(ругательства)

“mother”

extension

cognitive

c

ontention

The difference between extension & contention lies in the difference between the contents & the volume of the notion.

Contentional meaning reflects the structure of essential features of the notion.

Mother – female + main intention, the core part of lexical meaning

Con- parent + obligatory features to the reference of this class

ten- adult +

tion human +

previous generation +

Extension: a number of denotater to which its name refers: godmother, biological mother, mother-in-law.

Both components are variable.

1) They have got a parrot. This parrot has been with them for a long time. This parrot is a funny creature.

2) How long can a parrot live?

In this two examples the word PARROT changes its extensional.

1 – a representative of a class (denotative – конкретный)

2 – a name of a class (significative – усредненный)

the contentional is also different:

2) A bird living in some tropical countries, exotic bird, is able to speak

1) 2 + a concrete bird living with them

(more features of contentional meaning)

Not all the words have extensional meaning.

Names of properties (признаковые слова)

Verbs, adjectives, adverbs – don’t have the extensional meaning, because they are non-referential.

(они не могут выступать в репрезантивной функции они могут только описывать то, что уже описано другим именем (существительным)

A name has a denotative meaning if it represents a representative of a class.

When it represents the class in general it has significative meaning.

1. This is the house that Jack built.

2. A good laugh is sunshine in the house

general idea of the house

1 – denotative

2 – significative meaning

All common nouns can represent both a representative of a class & some class in general.

They can have either denotative or significative meanings.

Proper names can represent only a representative of a class. They can’t represent a the class in general. They have no intentional. They have only denotative meaning.

Some linguists use the term “connotational meaning” instead of the term “pragmatic meaning”

“dog”

semiotic – (sign) – dog

cognitive – an animal kept as a pet

used for hunting and guarding

pragmatic – devoted, friend – positive

wicked, bites, evil – negative

intentional – animal +

pet +

mammal +

used for hunting and guarding +

carnivorous +

extensional – different kinds of dogs (breeds)

significative – a dog is a man’s friend

How long can a dog live?

Denotative – I have a dog. This dog lives with me for a long time.

Implicational – 1. rigid implication: 4 paws, a tail, barks

2. strong implication: runs fast. Bites

3. weak implication: can swim

4. negative implication: a speaking dog

BORROWINGS

Contemporary English is an unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary. In the comparison with other languages English possesses great richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is unique in this respect.

A brief look on various historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) through cultural contacts with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard, school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel, bishop.

The same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10^th century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It means that their frequency is very high.

They, their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take...

They partly supersede the number of OE words

OE heofon – heaven (sky)

Niman – take

Steorfan – die

A more radical change & profound influence on the English vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15^th cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to the areas of court, church, law, state.

Virtue, religion, parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour...

The influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15^th cent., but continued up to the 17^th cent.

Many French borrowings retained their original pronunciation & stress

Champagne, ballet, machine, garage...

Separate, attitude, constitute, introduce...

Adjectives in English – arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their derivatives:

Demonstrative – demonstration

Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian: libretto, violin, opera

Spanish: hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch: yacht, dog, landscape

French: bouquet, buffet

From the point of view of their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the influence of broadcast media.

Even in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage” instead of “luggage”

The present day English vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

Semiosis

Кобозева: Знак выступает носителем значения языковых выражении

Значение – идеальная сущность, знак – материальная сущность.

В понятии знака сосредоточены главные свойства естественности языка.

Ф. де Сосюр : язык – система знаков

Семиотика – изучает все знаковые системы

Цель: создание общей теории знаков во всех формах

Философы

Семиотика

Ч. Пирс (1839-1914) основные принципы, ввел понятие семиотики

Ф.де Сосюр – семиология

Морис – упорядочил основы семиотики

Семиозис – процесс, в котором нечто функционирует в качестве знака

(художник – картина, подарок...)

1. знаковое средство

2. дисигнант (то, что знак выражает)

3. пользователь

тип отношения

1. синтаксические – знака к знаку

пример: светофор зеленый к красному

2. семантические – знака к дисигнанту

3. прагматические – знака к пользователю

3 измерения семиозиса, 3 аспекта знака – синтактика, семантика, прагматика

Язык – любая межсубъективная совокупность знаковых средств, употребление которых определено семантическими, синтактическими и прагматическими правилами(Морис).

Функции языка.

Коммуникативная

Коммуникация- сознательная передача информации (с помощью материальных сущностей- языковых выражений;функц. как знаки)

Языковой знак-двусторонен.

Материальная ст.-означающее Сосюр

Идеальная ст.-означаемое

О

значающее-план выражения Ельмслев

Означаемое- план содержания

 за означающим закреплены одни и те же означаемые

Следствие коммуникативной функции

1-ое свидетельство знака- наличие связи м/у означаемым и означающим

2-сложность их строения разложимость на более мелкие составляющие, членение знака- это свойство продиктовано: с помощью ограниченного количества знаков- разные сообщения.

Естеств.язык универсален, не ограничен одной сферой общения.

Система дорожных знаков исл.простые, нерасчлененные глобальные знаки. Каждому сообщению- один сигнал.

В языке принциа языковой экономии (памяти и усилий по производству высказывания)

Язык использует расчлененные знаки: с помощью нескольких десятков фонем- много означающих; ограниченное кол-во морфем-много слов  предложения.

Действует принцип двойного членения:

разложение сложных знаков на простые.

Кобозева: «Движение разрешено»- сложный знак, свой план выражения и содержания.

«Движение»+ «Разрешено» у каждого свой план выражения и содержания.

Это членение- знаковое (сложные знаки на простые)

не к знаку, а к его сторонам.

Означающее и означаемое могут быть поделены на единицы.

Единицы, которые получаются в результате-одноплановые-называются фигурами.

План выражения: фонема- элементарная единица, не имеют собственного означаемого, но обладают различительной силой, могут дифференц.слова.

План содержания: семантические компоненты (семы)

Father- male parent

На этом основан метод компонентного анализа.

Эти 2 св-ва знака- аксиомы.

Аксиома устойчивой связи м/у означающим и означаемым.
Аксиома структурности знака.
Аксиома ассиметрии. (Карцевский)

Карцевский статья об ассиметричном дуализме языкового знака.

Одно и тоже означающее означаемые разные и наоборот.

означающие равны, означаемые разные.

«топить»- утонул

стал жидким

стало тепло

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