І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

The second clauses in both compound sentences can change their place without any harm to their general content. Cf. The peasants plodded in ankle deep dust and the trucks ground up and away heading out of it all. Or in the second sentence: Suzanne waited for him to go and Larry puffed at his pipe. This same transposition can be performed on the Ukrainian variants of both sentences. Cf. 1) Вантажні машини, буксуючи, обганяли всіх, а селяни брели по кісточки в пилюці. Or: Селяни брели по кісточки в пилюці, а вантажні машини обганяли всіх. 2) Лері попихкував люльку, а Сузанна чекала на нього. — Сузанна чекала на нього, а Лері попихкував люльку.

Apart from temporal determining meanings, copulated clauses may express additional support or justification of the action in the main clause, eg:

The place of the second clause ("and I like Burt fine") in the first sentence is fixed, because it presents an additional confirmation of the action in the first clause ("But I got a place with Harry"). If the place of clauses were changed, it would disrupt the (logic the content) of the sentence as a whole. Cf. *I like Burt fine and I got the place with Harry...

No change of place/transposition of clauses is ever possible in the second sentence either. This is because of the justification contained in the second clause ("and there was no work to be got") which, when moved to the closing position, would make the sentence ungrammatical. "There was no other work to be got (and) / but after all I had to work". Beside that, the meaning of the conjunction "and" in Ukrainian is adversative (a), which is emphasised by the introductory "but" (after all).

The bulk of copulative clauses in English and Ukrainian, however have an adverbial implicit (sometimes almost explicit) determining meaning. These clauses are joined by different conjunctions which may often be treated as regular connectives that introduce subordinate clauses. The adverbial implicit meaning in compound sentences of this subtype

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may be single, i.e. pure (those of time, cause, purpose, result, concession) or combined with other adverbial relations (such as cause and result, cause and consequence, time and result, time and cause, etc.)

Among the single/simple determining adverbial relations expressed by the second clauses, joined by copulative conjunctions, the following are most occurrent:

1. The Relation of Result /Наслідкові відношення:

a) Still life's life, and we have to work through it and ourselves somehow. (Dreiser) b) She was leaning back on the chair and the fire light shone on her... face. (Hemingway)

Однак життя є життя, i ми маємо зрештою якось переборювати і його, і себе. Вона прихилилася спиною до крісла і полум'я освітило її приємне обличчя.

The action of the verb-predicate in each second clause of the above-given compound sentences results from the action of the corresponding main clause. Thus, "We have to work through it and ourselves" as a result of the fact that "life's life" (a sentence), whereas the fire light could shine "on her pleasantly lined face" as a result of her "leaning back on the chair" in the main clause of the sentence.

2. Cause or Causal Relations/Причину чи причинні відношення:

He didn't have any money and he was ashamed. (Quin) It was a Saturday and the shop was full... (R. Lardner)

Він був зовсім без грошей, і йому було соромно. Була одна із звичайних субот, і крамниця була повна людей...

Cf "he was ashamed" because he had no money, "the shop was full" because it was the weekend ("a Saturday").

3. Time or Temporal Relations/Час або часові відношення:

The dusk was blue and the birds were flying in it. (M. Le. Sueur) It was Easter Sunday and the Fascists were advancing toward the Ebro. (Hemingway)

Сутінки стали синіми i в них пролітали птахи. Була великодня неділя, і фашисти просувалися/рвалися до річки Ебро.

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Temporal relations in both these sentences can be identified by means of the corresponding questions: 1) When were the birds flying? — When it was dusk. 2) When were the Fascists advancing toward the Erbo? — On Easter Sunday.

Among the combined adverbial relations which can often be expressed by compound sentences or rather by second clauses in them, commonly observed in the contrasted languages are the following:

1. The Relations of Cause and Consequence/Причинно-наслід-кові відношення:

The relation of cause and consequence can easily be established in any of the above-given sentences with the help of questions to the predicate of the second clauses. Cf. Why did he undress in the cold? The answer is given in the main clause: because "The fire in the stove had gone out".

2. The Relations of Time and Consequence (Result)/Часово-наслідкові відношення:

Like all other determining adverbial relations, temporal and consequence / resultative meanings in the contrasted languages are created by the predicate/verb in the main clause:

dominant clause (father's waking up). This action is the consequence of the action performed in the first clause. Or in the second clause of the second sentence: "he began to cry" in consequence of the action performed in the clause "Jason got smoke in his eyes".

3. The Relation of Time and Concession /Часово-допустові відношення:

The interrelations existing between the action in the semantically dominant clause and in the succeeding clause may be that of time and concession. Cf. It was getting dark in the swamps, and he had ten miles to go. (Caldwell) На болота спадала ніч, а йому ще було йти десять миль.

The concessive adverbial meaning/determination of the second clause becomes explicit when the sentence is transformed: "It was getting dark in the swamps" despite that "he had ten miles to go". In Ukrainian: "Ha болота спадала ніч, а (хоч) йому ще треба було йти десять миль".

English and Ukrainian co-ordinate clauses may be joined by connective words, whose meaning is close to that of the copulative conjunction. The most often used connectives of this group are so, while, then, hence, only, whereas, corresponding to Ukrainian тож, як /і, тимчасом, тоді, тільки.

When joined by these connectives, the clauses acquire some additional implicit meaning (causal, resultative, etc.).

He couldn't figure things fast, so Він не міг схоплювати чужі думки

he had figured them slow. (Bennett) швидко, тож (і) він схоплював їх по-

вільно.

The connective "so" introduces the clause of causal and resultative meaning being at the same time lexically close to the conjunction "and". So it is with some other English connectives of co-ordinate clauses:

He was in leash to the French Він був пов'язаний з цією фран-

school... only I did not know it at цузькою школою... тільки я не

the time. (Dreiser) знав тоді цього.

The meaning of "only" in this sentence is close to the adversative meaning of the Ukrainian conjunctions а, але (only I did not know it at

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the time" — тільки/але я не знав тоді про це). Such clauses are intermediary between copulative and adversative, they have the meaning of both of them. Their place in the sentence is fixed in both languages.

Close to the copulative conjunction "and" are also some other determining connectives in both languages. For example, while:

Contrastive and Adversative Compound Sentences

Like all other compound sentences with determining clauses, the contrastive and adversative subtype of composite sentences are distinguished in the contrasted languages through the seemingly copulative conjunction "and", whose meaning in Ukrainian corresponds to the adversative conjunction "a". Cf:

The contrastive and adversative meaning in compound sentences of this subtype seem to be more explicit in Ukrainian, which (can be explained by the existence of the adversative conjunction a, whose meaning in English is included in the semantic structure of the conjunction and.

The semantic/logical dependence of clauses in the sentence above makes no changes of their position possible. Though in some compound sentences of this subtype there may be looser ties between the constituent clauses. Cf. The worst of them had drunk plenty of gin, and they were a rough bunch even when sober. (Lardner)

The second clause above can be moved to the initial position, i. e. change its placement with the main clause. Cf. They were a rough bunch even when sober, and the most of them had drank plenty of gin.

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Though the sequence of actions in the sentence has been changed, the general sense of it and its grammaticality remain inviolable both in the author's original and in the transformed variant. These features are also preserved in the Ukrainian transform: Вони й тверезими були дикою зграєю, а (тут) більшість з них (ще й) добряче хильнули джину.

Practically no semantic changes can be noticed in many other transforms in English and in Ukrainian compound sentences of this subtype. Cf. There are butterflies in the sunshine, and from everywhere arises the drowsy hum of bees. (London) — From everywhere arises the drowsy hum of bees, and there are butterflies in the sunshine. Somewhat looser ties are observed in the Ukrainian transform of the sentence as well: На осонні літають метелики, а довкола заспокійливо гудуть бджоли. — Довкола заспокійливо гудуть бджоли, а на осонні літають метелики.

Transformations of this kind become impossible in English and Ukrainian contrastive and adversative compound sentences, when their clauses are semantically bound to one object or action/event. Thus, in the compound sentence Her complexion was not good and her face was covered with blotches. (Anderson) the subjects complexion and face belong together, since "complexion" is a feature of one's face. As a result, the second clause, being a logical sequence of the state expressed in the main clause, can not precede it but only follow it. Otherwise the sentence would be logically/semantically incompatible. The Ukrainian transform of this sentence would completely pervert the logical sequence of actions. Cf. *Воно було в прищах, а/і в неї був негарний колір обличчя.

As can be noticed, the transformed sentence loses the semantic unity between its clauses in both contrasted languages. Consequently, such transformations are impossible.

Compound Sentences with Asyndetically Adjoined Clauses

Compound sentences with asyndetically adjoined clauses are equally pertained to both contrasted languages. They are represented by two common subtypes:

a) compound sentences with an implicit though quite transparent copu-

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lative interrelation between the constituent clauses and with close semantic and syntactic ties between the succeeding and preceding clauses. As a result, asyndetically adjoined clauses in sentences of this subtype can be substituted for syndetically connected clauses (with the help of the copulative conjunction "and"). Cf. She's worthy, she's dowdy; she's provincial. (Maugham) — She's worthy, (and she's dowdy, (and) she's provincial. Similarly in Ukrainian: Вона гонориста; (і) вона старомодна; (і) вона провінціалка.

b) compound sentences of the second subtype are characterised by a still looser connection between the adjoined clauses which are marked by a comma or a semicolon. The syntactic interrelation between the component clauses in sentences of this subtype may be of copulative or adversative nature. Cf. Young John has never studied a doctrine for himself; he has never examined a doctrine for any purpose. (Twain) — Young John has never studied a doctrine for himself, (and) he has never examined a doctrine for any purpose... The co-ordinate copulation is also preserved in Ukrainian: Молодий пастор Джон ніколи не вивчав якоїсь віри, (І) він ніколи не заглиблювався в неї з якоюсь певною метою.

No less frequent in both languages are also adversative interrelations between clauses in looser compound sentences of this subtype. Thus, in the sentence " It didn't warm me, it made me feel sick inside" (Maltz), the adversative interrelation between the constituent clauses can be made explicit by inserting the co-conjunction but between them: It didn't warm me (but), it made me feel sick inside.

An equivalent transformation of this sentence can be performed in Ukrainian. Cf. Вона (усмішка) не зігріла мене, (а) вона викликала в мене відразу.

The adversative meaning can be intensified by the introductory "but" as in the following sentence: But the teller of the comic story does not slur the nub; he shouts at you... (M. Twain). The sentence preserves the same meaning in Ukrainian: Але/проте автор комічного твору ніколи не завуальовує смішного; він обстрілює ним вас...

A still looser semantic and syntactic dependence can be observed in some polypredicative asyndetic compound sentences whose clauses often display a tendency to a semantic and logical autonomy. The latter is

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predetermined by actions/events expressed by the predicate verbs, which do not depend on the predicate verbs of the preceding clauses.

Cf. The moon sank behind the hill; the doorway framed only a path of pale sky; the willy wagtail chirped behind the house; the mosquitoes buzzed against the net. (Cusack) The interdependence between the succeeding and the preceding pairs of neighbouring clauses is rather vague due to which the clauses may be singled out and even form independent sentences. Cf. The moon sank behind the hill. The doorway framed only a path of pale sky. The willy wagtail chirped behind the house...

Similar polypredicative sentences are pertained to Ukrainian as well: Сонце заходить, гори чорніють, Пташечка тихне, попе німіє. Радіють люди... (Шевченко) Despite their being marked by commas, all the clauses retain their interdependence due to the general content and due to the supersegmental means (intonation, logical stress), which make some of them loose enough as to form at least three separate sentences: Сонце заходить — гори чорніють. Пташечка тихне — поле німіє. Радіють люди...

Consequently, a looser connection between clauses in compound sentences of the second subtype is predetermined by the nature of actions expressed in the constituent clauses, as well as by the extralingual factors. These include the author's pragmatic intentions due to which some loosely connected clauses may become separate simple sentences or vice versa. Thus, the two simple sentences: The duchess went pale. The duchess went red. (Maugham) may be transformed into constituent clauses of a compound sentence: The duchess went pale; the duchess went red. And in Ukrainian: Графиня пополотніла; графиня побуряковіла.

A possibility of the kind of transformations in the system of compound sentences belonging to the second subtype testifies to their discrete status in both contrasted languages.

Isomorphisms and Allomorphisms in the System of Sentences with Syndetically and Asyndetically Joined Component Parts

As to their structure, compound sentences in English and Ukrainian fall into two clearly distinguishable groups: 1) compound sentences prop-

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er; 2) intermediaries between the simple extended sentences and the

compound sentences proper.

The compound sentences proper may be of some structural forms: a) unextended compound sentences consisting of two simple clauses

joined syndetically or asyndetically, eg:

b) two-componental compound sentences with one or both extended clauses joined syndetically or asyndetically:

с) compound sentences consisting of more than two clauses joined by different conjunctions, due to which the clauses have a fixed place, eg:

Typology of Semi-Compound Sentences

Apart from complete compound sentences consisting of clauses having each the principal parts of the sentence, there exist also semi-compound sentences. They are communicative units in which one (usually the first) clause is structurally complete and the succeeding clause is incomplete, i. e. lacks one or both main parts of the sentence, eg.

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Melton was not large enough to Селище Мельтон було замалим

be a town, nor small enough to be а для міста і завеликим як для села/

village. (Hughes) щоб вважатися селом.

The second part of the sentence both in English and in Ukrainian lacks the subject and the linking verb; it is an elliptical clause whose lacking elements can be easily restored from the first clause. Cf. ...Nor was Melton small enough to be a village — (і був Мелтон) завеликим для села/щоб вважатися селом. A similar lack of the subject is observed in the sentence "He couldn't believe it and was a little scared" (Saroyan), as well as in the sentence "The guys seemed to notice it and felt strained". (Quin) Their Ukrainian equivalents lack the same parts of the sentence: Він не міг повірити цьому і був дещо наляканий. Хлопці, здавалося, помітили це і почувалися непевно.

Other parts of the sentence may be lacking in semi-compound sentences of this type as well. For example, the lacking linking verb: His dreams were so simple; his wants so few. (Dreiser), i. e. "his wants (were) so few". Lacking may also be the subject and the predicate: After the second bath in the hot viniger the shell of the egg had been softened a little but not enough for his purpose. (Anderson). Here the omitted parts in the tag are the subject ("the shell of the egg") and the predicate (has been softened) "not enough for the purpose". Or in such a sentence: He used to be as popular as anyone, and made as much noise. (Quin), i. e. and (he) "made as much noise". These and other sentences of the type have semi-compound transforms in Ukrainian as well... шкаралупа яйця пом'якшала, проте (вона) пом'якшала недостатньо для цього. Він був такий популярний, як і кожен на його місці, і (він) створював (навколо себе) стільки ж галасу.

Some English semi-composite sentences have no structural sentence equivalents in Ukrainian. Here belong sentences whose parts are expressed by secondary predication constructions. Thus, the English semi-compound sentence He looked at her and saw her crying. (Hemingway) has a complete complex sentence for its equivalent in Ukrainian: Він глянув на неї і побачив, що вона плаче (object clause).

English semi-compound sentences with the nominative absolute participle constructions have mostly complete compound sentences for their

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equivalents in Ukrainian as well: Nancy's head was already turned toward the barred door, her eyes filled with red lamplights. (Faulkner) — Голова Ненсі була повернута до запертих дверей, і в очах її відбилося червоне світло лампочки.

These are the main allomorphic features distinguishing the English semi-compound sentences which have no direct structural equivalents in present-day Ukrainian.