І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

"Has she three children then?" — "Yes." (Maugham) "You can see even better from here." — "All right. "(Hemingway)	"У неї, отже, троє дітей?" — "Так". "Звідси тобі навіть краще буде видно". — "Гаразд ".
Simple affirmative non-segmentable sentences may often be emphasised by interjections or through doubling of a particle. Cf.
"That is in the United States?" "Yes. Oh yes. "(Greene) "Do you love me?" "Uh, huh. " (Hemingway)	"Тобто в Сполучених Штатах?" "Так. Саме так /о, так. " "Ти мене любиш?" — "У-гу. "
2. Negative non-segmentable sentences serve to express disagreement with the statement/suggestion contained in the antecedent sentence. An ordinary /non-emphatic negation is usually expressed in English through the pronominal particle "no " and in Ukrainian — through the particle "ні":
"Scared of the dark, too, kid?" 'Wo. "(Steinbeck) "What'd he cop, malaria?" -'No. " (F. Hardy)	"Боїшся теж темноти, хлопче?" - Ні. "У нього що - ревматизм?" Ні "Що він підхопив — малярію?" - Ні. ("Що в нього - малярія?") - Ні.
Emphatic negative meanings in this type of sentences are often expressed in English through doubling of the pronominal particle "no " and through the phrase negation not at all, whereas in Ukrainian apart from "ні" some other negative composite particles are used (та ні, зовсім ні, де там — ні):
"I'm just terrible to him". "Oh, no, no, no... "(Parker) "Are you very angry with me?" "No. Not at all. " (Maugham)	"Я просто жахлива з ним". "Та ні, ні, ні. " "Ти дуже сердишся на мене?" "Ні, анітрохи. "
Non-segmentable may be in English and Ukrainian infinite rows of negative particles preceding or following a noun, as in the humorous

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English song about John: "Will you kiss me? Yes or no? " "Oh, no, John, no, John, no, John, no. "

3. Interrogative non-segmentable sentences are formed by the particle "yes " (less often "no") and some interjections:

"I got a cable this morning from my wife." — "Yes?" (Greene) "I congratulate you." — "Eh?" (Christie)

"Мені телефонувала сьогодні вранці дружина."-"Так?" "Поздоровляю вас." — "Га?"

"Monsieur would not let me replace the top." — "No?" (Hemingway) "А курей на буряки вивозили?" — "Ні." ? "Ні? " (Вишня)

4. Non-segmentable sentences are often used to express some modal meanings (certainty, one's will, consent, warning, etc.):

"You can have it tonight." "Right?" (Wilson) "Ole Anderson?" — "Sure. " (Hemingway) -

"Можеш сьогодні це мати". "Справді? /Невже? " "Оле Андерсон?" — "Авжеж. "

Elements of Direct Address in English and Ukrainian

Direct address in the contrasted languages belongs to isomorphic syntactic phenomena. It may have the structure of a word, word-group or a sentence. Direct address is used in both contrasted languages, with the aim of drawing attention of the reader or listener to some information, object or person. For example, in English.

Men of England, heirs of glory. Люди Англії, спадкоємці слави. Heroes of unwritten story... (Shelley) Герої ще не написаної історії. As can be noticed the English word-group of direct address expressing the vocative case relation do not have it expressed synthetically as it is in Ukrainian: Люди Англії, спадкоємці слави... The vocative case in Ukrainian is mostly an explicit form of expressing one's address to any notional part of speech. Cf. Думи мої, думи мої, Лихо мені з вами! (Т. Шевченко) or Донеччино моя, моя ти Батьківщино... (Сосюра) Україно, ти для мене диво! Україно! Ти моя молитва! Ти моя розлуко вікова! (Симоненко) Чого ти, сину, став такий смутний! (Н. Левиць-

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кий) Present-day English has no vocative case inflexion to express direct address which is to be conveyed in Ukrainian:

"Good night, Mary dear. Good night, "На добраніч, дорога Мері. На до- Bob" (F. King) браніч, Бобе."

The expression of direct address in Ukrainian may sometimes be only partial. It happens, when the addressee noun is indeclinable in Ukrainian. For example:

"Are you married, Mr Poirot?" (Christie) "Ви одружений, пане Пуаро?"

Words of address in both languages can sometimes form synonymic strings which have equivalents in either of them. For example: Світе милий, краю милий, моя Україно! (Т. Шевченко) or: Сини мої, Орли мої! Летіть в Україну! (Ibid.) Their English semantic equivalents will have, of course, no vocative case explicit distinctions, though their semantic structure will remain unchanged: О my still world, my homeland dear, My sons, my brave eagles! Fly to my beloved Ukraine!

The addressee syntagmemes/elements are also endowed with predication, the minimal degree of which is pertained to proper names. Cf.:

"Dear Sally, what I like about you is "Дорога Саллі, що мені найбільше

your beautiful honesty." (Jessing) подобається в тобі, то це твоя пре-

красна чесність."

Direct addresses are often used in both languages to convey modality and emotions: disgust, dissatisfaction, joy, sorrow, fright, prohibition and others. Cf. "Thanks, Mike, thanks!" "Дякую Майку, дякую!" (Ibid.) "Oh, Guy, don't blame me. It really is not my fault." (Maugham) "Ой, Гаю, не вини мене. Тут я і справді не винна."

TYPOLOGY OF THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE IN THE CONTRASTED LANGUAGES

A composite sentence in English and Ukrainian, like in all other languages, contains two or more primary predication centres mostly repre-

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sented by as many corresponding clauses. The structural types of the composite sentence are identified on the ground of the syntactic reflection (and connection) of its predicate parts which are not always distinctly identified. Thus, common in the syntactic systems of English and Ukrainian are sentences that are semantically intermediate between simple extended on the one hand and composite sentences on the other. These are the so-called semi-compound and semi-complex sentences. For example, the sentence "One does not give up a god easily and so with White Fang." (London) can not be treated as a simple extended one. Neither can it be identified as a composite sentence since the second part in it (and "so with White Fang") contains no subject and no predicate and wholly depends on the predicative centre of the first clause. Though the implicitly perceivable subject is the demonstrative pronoun "it" which logically requires the predicate verb "be". Cf. One does not give up a god easily, and so (it is/or was) with White Fang in Ukrainian equivalents are as follows:

1) He так легко відмовитися від свого 2) Не так легко відмовитися від

власника — бога, саме так і в свого власника — бога, саме

Білозубця. так (було це) і Білозубцеві.

Similarly with English extended sentences containing the secondary predication constructions or complexes, as they are traditionally called, that represent semi-complex sentences as well. They mostly correspond to Ukrainian complex sentences. Cf. White Fang felt fear mounting in him again. (London) Білозубець відчув, що "ним опановує страх" (the construction "fear mounting in him" becomes an object clause: White Fang felt /how?/that fear was mounting in him).

Present-day Ukrainian, as has been pointed out on the foregoing pages, has only some similar constructions of this nature. Cf. 1) Він застав двері зачиненими. == Він застав двері (вони були) зачиненими. 2) Санітари знайшли вояка пораненим. == ... (він був) пораненим.

The absence of almost all the secondary predication constructions in Ukrainian makes it impossible to obtain direct correlative transforms of some simple and composite sentences. Hence, English compound sen-

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tences may have complex sentences for their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.

He leaned far out of the window and Він висунувся далеко з вікна і

he saw the first light spread. помітив, що починають

(Galsworthy) пробиватися перші промені.

Because of the objective with the infinitive construction in the second/succeeding English clause of the compound sentence above the Ukrainian equivalent of it can be only an object subordinate clause.

There are, however, many common features in the system of the composite sentence of English and Ukrainian. One of them is the semantic ambiguity of some compound sentences that have the implicit meaning of complex sentences, which will be exemplified on the forthcoming pages. For example, the compound sentence "It (the play) stinks, but I'm Benedict Arnold" (Salinger) has an implicit concessive meaning of "Though the play stinks, I'm Benedict Arnold" (i. e., I'll act the part of Benedict Arnold in it). Similarly in Ukrainian: "П'єса препогана, але ж я граю Бенедикта Арнольда", і. е. Хоч/незважаючи на те, що п'єса препогана, але я погодився грати в ній головну роль..." Nevertheless there is much common in the nature and structure of the composite sentence in the syntactic systems of English and Ukrainian. Isomorphism is observed first of all in the nomenclature of the Major Syntax units represented by the compound and complex sentences.

Typology of the Compound Sentence

Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by means of co-ordinate conjunctions which provide parataxal relations between them. Conjunctions joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are practically of the same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal/or (in English only). Equally common in the contrasted languages are various connectives that join co-ordinate clauses. These are as follows: therefore, consequently, accordingly, then, hence, so, while, as well as and some explanatory connective words (that is to say, such as, like, let me say and others),

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which have corresponding functional (and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (отже, та, а саме, звідси, тобто, тоді, як-то, так-як, ...так, скажімо, то...то).

Co-ordinate conjunctions, as well as various connectives, realise their functional and semantic meaning in structurally and semantically identical English and Ukrainian compound sentences. This is to be explained by the existence of common relations that are created between the coordinate clauses of compound sentences and to a large degree by the semantic meanings of conjunctions/connectives that join these clauses.

As a result, isomorphism, if not exact likeness, is observed in the nature of some subtypes of English and Ukrainian compound sentences. These isomorphic features find their expressions in the existence of the following subtypes of them:

1. Compound Sentences with Free/Neutral Interrelations
between Their Clauses

Co-ordinated clauses of this subtype of compound sentences change their position without effecting in any way their semantic structure or the communicative aim of the expression. Cf. It was like singing and it wasn't like singing. (Faulkner) When transformed with the help of changing the position of clauses into "It wasn't like singing and it was like singing" the content of the sentence does not change, though the order of actions becomes reverse. Similarly in the following sentence: I smiled and he smiled. (Dreiser) which may be transformed into "He smiled and I smiled. " Though the sequence (the order) of the events is changed, the general content of the sentence is not changed on the whole. This kind of transformation can be performed on the Ukrainian variants of the two sentences. Cf. Це було не схоже на спів і це було схоже на спів. Я засміявся і він засміявся. = Він засміявся і я засміявся.

In compound sentences consisting of more than two semantically neutral clauses, the first clause may not always change its place with other clauses. The restriction in transformation through the change of place is due to the semantic interrelation existing between the main clause and the other clauses of the compound sentence. Cf. They were all from Milan, 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 2) and one was

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to be a painter, 3) and one had intended to be a soldier. (Hemingway) In this sentence the second and the third clauses can change their place with the preceding or with the succeeding clause without changing in any noticeable way the sense and the structure of the composite sentence as a whole. Cf. They were all from Milan 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 2) and one of them was to be a painter. Or: They were all from Milan, 2) and one of them was to be a painter, 1) and one of them was to be a lawyer, 3) and one had intended to be a soldier. The Ukrainian variant of this sentence undergoes similar transformation through the change of place of the same neutral clauses. Cf. Вони всі троє були з Мілана, 2) і один з них мав був стати художником, 3) один мав колись намір стати військовим, І) а один мав був стати правником. Transformations/transpositions of the kind are not always possible, however, in compound sentences whose clauses in the contrasted languages are joined with the help of some other copulative conjunctions. Cf.

The hall was not dark, nor was it lit... (Bronte)

Передпокій не був темний, як не був він і освітлений.

Nevertheless, a transformation through the change of position of clauses is not excluded in compound sentences with the conjunction "as" having "як" for its functional and semantic equivalent in Ukrainian. Cf.

He had never quite accepted it, as he had never accepted other aspects of his life. (Maltz)

Він ніколи не схвалював цієї, як не схвалював він і інших сторін свого життя.

Cf. He had never accepted other aspects of his life, as he had never accepted it. Similarly in Ukrainian: Він ніколи не схвалював інших сторін свого життя, як не схвалював він і цієї.

2. Compound Sentences with Adversative Interrelations between Their Clauses

These relations are formed in English by the conjunctions but, still, and yet, whose equivalents in Ukrainian are а, але, проте, та, однак:

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This type of the compound sentence in English and Ukrainian consists of clauses whose position is fixed. The second clauses in such compound sentences may be introduced by different conjunctions or connectors, and they may also be connected asyndetically. Whatever the means of connection, the main factors predetermining the fixed placement of most clauses in the contrasted languages are common. They are as follows: 1) the semantic dependence of the second clause on the action/ event in the main ("principal") clause; 2) the nature and meaning (structure) of the conjunction/connective word; 3) the semantic predetermining of the syndetically or asyndetically joined second/third clauses; 4) the existence of other than the main conjunction; 5) the existence of extension or expansion of component clauses through appending word-combinations or regular clauses. The realisation of each of the above-mentioned factors can be observed in some common subtypes of compound sentences, the main groups of which in the contrasted languages are as follows:

A. Compound Sentences with Anaphoric Pronouns/ Складносурядні речення з анафоричними займенниками

The succeeding (second) clause joined to the preceding clause by the copulative conjunction "and" may depend semantically on a noun or any other notional word/part of the sentence performing some function in the first clause. This subtype of compound sentences is common in the contrasted languages; it has mostly equivalent structure forms of the same sentences:

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You kept from thinking and it was Ти переставав задумуватись, і

all marvellous. (Ibid.) це було чудово.

The anaphoric pronoun may be located at some distance from the antecedent noun, eg:

He had no prospects and he knew that. (M. Quin)

Він не мав жодних перспектив і він знав це.

Anaphoric may also be a predicative construction with a pronoun it as the subject of the clause:

In her dream she was at the house on Long Island and it was night before her daughter's debut. (Hemingway)

Їй снилася домівка на Лонг-Айленді, і ніби то був вечір перед доччиним дебютом.

Here the anaphoric pronoun it in the second clause is enclosed in the predicative word-group it was night which functions as a single anaphoric pronoun both in English and in Ukrainian (cf. то був вечір перед... дебютом).

The co-occurrence of compound sentences with anaphoric pronouns (word-groups with pronouns) is considerably high in English and Ukrainian.

B. Compound Sentences with Disjunctive Interrelations Between Clauses/ Складносурядні речення з роз'єднальними сполучниками

Disjunctive relations are expressed in English through the conjunctions or, either ... or whose semantic and partly structural equivalents in Ukrainian are або, або...або, чи...чи, чи то...чи то, не то...не то. Cf.

Note. Some repeating conjunctions of the group are often used to express co-ordinate actions excluding, in turn, each others. As a result, clauses in such sentences may sometimes change their position without losing their disjunctive interrelation, eg: Чи то було сьогодні, чи нічого не було? (Коцюбинський) Чи нічого не було, чи то було сьогодні? Or in English: Either it was today or it was nothing? Either it was nothing, or it was today?

C. Compound Sentences with Causative and Consecutive In terrelations between Clauses/Складносурядні речення з причин но-наслідковими відношеннями між складовими (підрядни ми) реченнями в українських відповідниках.

The interrelations of cause and consequence are expressed through the causative and co-ordinate conjunction/or which has corresponding subordinate conjunctions in Ukrainian (бо, тим-то, оскільки):

But the scholarship would help him Зате стипендія дуже допомогла

a great deal/or they were not rich б йому, адже/тому що вони

people. (Hughes) були не з багатіїв.

And he discharged me first for my І він звільнив мене першим з ро-

hair was white. (Reed) боти, оскільки/бо я вже був сивий.