І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

How long he walked he didn't Як довго він ішов, — він не

know. (Anderson) пам'ятає.

Nevertheless, it is far from always possible to keep the same preposed or postposed placement of English object clauses in the corresponding Ukrainian sentences:

"They don't last, I'm told." (Wilde). "Я чув, вони не витримують."

"Мені сказали, що вони не витримають."

It came from the sea though, Я гадаю, однак, що воно з'явилося

І presume. (Dreiser) з моря.

As can be ascertained, postposition of object clauses following the matrix clause is more often observed in Ukrainian whereas in English complex sentences of both positions are equally common. But isomorphic remains one more feature such as the use of homogeneous object clauses to a matrix clause:

"You know I'm not a beautiful wo- "Знаєте, я зовсім не красуня,

man, I'm not even a very pretty мене навіть гарненькою не на-

one." (Maugham) звеш."

In rare cases an object clause in English and Ukrainian may depend on an infinitival matrix clause, eg:

"But to think Julia possibly gave "Але подумати тільки, щоб

him a thought." (Maugham) Джулія так напоумила його."

Pertaining to Ukrainian only is the structural form of matrix clauses identical with regular one-member definite personal sentences taking objective clauses for their complements, eg: Хочете, я з вами посиджу. (М. Вовчок) Сказано: "Хліб та вода — то козацька їда." (Куліш) Раділа, що йду, живу, п'ю цілюще степове повітря. (Гончар) Це ж, думаю, Палажка ходить до моєї криниці. (Н.-Левицький) Вважалося, що перенесення образів... річ зовсім неможлива. (Рильський)

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Typological Features of Attributive Clauses

Like all other nominal clauses, English and Ukrainian attributive clauses have also both isomorphic and allomorphic features. The isomorphic features, which generally outnumber the latter, are predetermined by some common syntactic and semantic factors. These are the following features of attributive clauses in the contrasted languages: 1) they always follow the antecedent noun, pronoun or numeral which they modify/ specify; 2) they may sometimes be substituted for the corresponding participial constructions performing an attributive function; 3) They may often be joined to the English antecedent asyndetically. Cf.:

He could be somebody who could He could be somebody playing

play the piano. (Saroyan) the piano.

Similar transformations are possible in Ukrainian, though postposed participial constructions can rarely substitute an attributive clause. More often the past participle can be used instead, which may be substituted for an attributive clause:

Слова, підхоплені на парті, йому припали до душі. (Масенко) — Слова, які/що були підхоплені на парті, йому припали до душі.

Note. Far from all English participial constructions used in the attributive function to a prepositive nominal word, can be transformed into an attributive clause (or vice versa). The restrictions are due to the meaning of the participle and the predicate verb in the attributive clause respectively. Cf. There was the other Sirnosian with them who was not an uneasy man. (Aldridge) Or: ... it is so now, at the time I am writing. (Amis) Neither of the two attributive clauses in these sentences can be transformed into a semantically corresponding attributive participial construction because the predicate "was not an uneasy man" like "am writing" are not transformable (like their equivalents in Ukrainian) into present participles in general.

Attributive clauses in the contrasted languages have some other common features, namely:

a) they can be joined to the antecedent of the matrix clause by means of conjunctions that, as if/as though, whether (що, мов, ніби):

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Gilbert has just told me something Джільберт щойно сказав мені that I can hardly bring myself to таке, у що я ніяк не можу no- believe. (Maugham) вірити.

І have a feeling that if I'd stayed а У мене таке відчуття, що коли б

day longer I should have been я залишилась тут ще день, я б

bored. (Ibid.) умерла з нудьги.

b) they are much more often joined to the matrix clause by means of relative pronouns and relative adverbs (who, whose, what, which, that, when, whence, where, how — хто, кого, ким, який, що, де, коли, звідки, куди, чому):

І glanced at Daisy, who was staring Я глянув на Дейзі, яка злякано

between Gatsby and her husband. дивилася кудись поміж Ґетсбі й

(Fitzgerald) своїм чоловіком.

It is the sanctuary where all things Це і є те сховище, де все може

find refuge. (Maugham) знайти притулок.

Common in the contrasted languages are some traditionally distinguished groups of attribute clauses like the following:

1. Appositive clauses which are joined to an antecedent noun having a most general abstract meaning or to a pronoun (mostly indefinite) with the help of a relative pronoun or pronominal adverb:

This was the time when they looked І от настав час, коли очі вже

now. (O'Dell) бачили.

Also it seemed to be connected with Здавалося також, що це було

something which required conceal- пов'язане з чимось, що треба

ment. (Dreiser) було приховувати.

2. Restrictive attributive clauses in English and Ukrainian are very closely connected with the antecedent which is determined or identified/ particularised by the subordinate clause without which the matrix clause is incomplete:

There was a legend among the Між людьми ходила легенда,

people that the island had once been що острів колись був покритий

covered with tall trees. (O'Dell) високими деревами.

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3. Descriptive attributive clauses give some additional information about the antecedent. Due to this the clauses in both contrasted languages may be omitted without affecting the semantic completeness of the sentence:

...his eyes were fixed upon the prin- ...його очі не відривалися від

cess, who sat to the right of his принцеси, яка сиділа праворуч

father. (Stockton) від батька-короля.

Attributive clauses in both languages may be joined to the matrix clause by prepositional relative pronouns:

His love became a prison for him Його кохання стало в'язницею

from which he longed to escape. для нього, з якої він волів

(Maugham) утекти.

Common, though more characteristic of Ukrainian than of English, are the so-called continuative attributive clauses which have no correlating relative pronoun to the nominal antecedent in the matrix clause. These clauses are introduced by the conjunction що/that, eg:

Почуття волі були такими гаря- The feeling of freedom became so

чими, що серце солодко захлину- warm that his heart chocked with

лося, попливло... (Гуцало) enthusiasm and floated...

Іноді він поринав у такий глибокий Sometimes he would plunge into

роздум, що його будили, як сон- so deep a contemplation that he

ного... (Довженко) had to be awakened like a man

asleep...

Very often, however, English relative pronouns referring to antecedents denoting person can be substituted in Ukrainian for a relative pronoun or for the conjunction що:

I looked at my cousin, who began to Я повернувся до двоюрідної сестри, ask me questions... (Fitzgerald) яка/що стала розпитувати мене...

English attributive clauses, which specify antecedents denoting non-421

person, are mostly introduced by the relative pronoun which (sometimes preceded by a preposition) or by the conjunction that, eg: On the second floor were managerial offices, to which after some inquiry, she was now directed. (Dreiser) I decided to pack the things that I would take to the cave on the ravine. (O'Dell) In Ukrainian, however, the relative pronoun, as a rale, agrees in number and gender with the antecedent noun or pronoun of the matrix clause. Cf. ...і великий став би художник, який зумів би передати все це. (Гончар) В штабі запанувала пауза, в якій чути було далеку канонаду... (Яновський) Зажурено дивився він у маленьке віконце, за яким снував пряжу післядощовий капіж. (Тютюнник) Нема таких туманів, які б не розійшлися над тобою... (Рильський)

Of isomorphic nature, however, are some implicit adverbial meanings expressed also by the attributive clauses through their adverbial connectors, as in the above-given already examples:

Time: It was the time when they Настав час, коли вони (щенята)

looked now. (O'Dell) вже не були сліпі.

Cause: There was no reason why Я не бачу жодних підстав, чому

she should not get some б вона не знайшла потрібного

dramatist... (Maugham) драматурга...

Place: It is the sanctuary where all Це — сховище, де всі речі зна-

things find refuge. (Ibid.) йдуть собі прихисток.

Isomorphic in the syntactical systems of the contrasted languages, however, is the existence of polycomponental and simpler complex sentences with the so-called comment clauses [52, 293]. Their common forms are you know, you see, as you know, what's more (бачите, розумієте, як бачите, як кажуть). The clauses may occur in the sentence initially, medially or finally. Cf. "You see, when we left New York she was very nervous and she thought it would steady her to drive... (Fitzgerald) — Бачите, коли ми виїхали з Нью-Йорка, вона була дуже знервована, тож вона вирішила, що її заспокоїть їзда за кермом автомобіля.

The English two-componental clause "You see", like its Ukrainian definite personal clause equivalent "Бачите", practically performs no syntactic (subordinated or subordinating) function. It serves as an ap-

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pended sentence to mark a colloquial introduction to the complex sentences whose structural pattern in English and Ukrainian can be presented as follows: Scomment.Smatr.
When in its medial position, the comment clause resembles or coincides in its function with the inserted clause as in the following sentence: "I'm glad that you both "know all", as Eteban dramatically put it... because it... leaves us free to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion." (Coward) "Я радий, що ви обидва "знаєте все", як неждано-негадано заявив Етебан, тому що це... дозволяє нам прийти до позитивного розв'язання справи."

The underlined clause "as Eteban dramatically put it" has no syntactic dependence on the preceding or on the succeeding clause as the two other subordinate clauses have in the sentence.

As was pointed out, one more allomorphic feature of English attributive clauses is the omission of the joining/connecting element before the subordinate clause which is impossible in Ukrainian. Cf. "There's a woman [ ] set about me with a stick on the commoc," he said (V.C. Pritchett) Or in such a sentence: "There's crowds of artists [ ] have asked me- sometimes it's just funny stuff, of course, but mostly it's genuine." (A. Wilson))

And who was it last night said [ ] he wouldn't have fat on his mean and changed it for hers?' (Lessing) In these sentences the connective pronoun who is omitted.

Allomorphic Correlations between Some English and Ukrainian Simple and Composite Sentences

The contrastive analysis of the compound and complex sentences performed on the foregoing pages has testified to the existence of complete isomorphism in the syntactical nature, nomenclature and functions of their clauses in English and Ukrainian. The few divergences mentioned refer to the structural nature and to the ways of connection of some clauses in these two languages. Allomorphic for English are definite personal clauses whereas Ukrainian has no tag-clauses and some structural forms of subject and predicative clauses and no syndetic way of joining the attributive clauses to the antecedent in the matrix clause. There is mostly no structural identity between the English sentences con-

423

taining some secondary predication and passive voice constructions and their corresponding Ukrainian syntactic units. Hence, the regularity of the necessary transformations which the English simple and composite sentences often undergo in Ukrainian. This usually happens in the following cases:

1. When a passive construction in the English simple sentence has no functional verb-form equivalent in Ukrainian:

2. When in the English simple sentence there is an objective with, the infinitive construction:

3. When in the English simple sentence there is an objective with the participle or adjective construction/complex:

4. When in the English simple sentence there is a subjective with the infinitive/participle construction:

5. When there is a gerund or a gerundial complex in some function in the simple English sentence:

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6. When the English simple sentence contains a nominative absolute participial construction in some adverbial function:

7. When a secondary predication construction (sometimes a single gerund) is used in an English clause, the Ukrainian transform of it usually has one clause more: .

On the same ground English three-claused composite sentences (супідрядні речення) are to be transformed into four-claused sentences in Ukrainian. Cf.

The absence of structurally equivalent transforms for such and the like English simple and composite sentences in Ukrainian testifies to the existence of some typological allomorphism in the system of the highest syntactic level units in the contrasted languages.

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses

The main criteria on the basis of which the classification of all adverbial subordinate clauses is performed are common in the contrasted lan-

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guages. These criteria include as obligatory the following characteristics of these clauses: a) their function; b) their semantics; c) partly their ways of connection with the principal clause as well as d) the structure of the sentence as a whole.

The functional classification of adverbial clauses in English and Ukrainian is established on the basis of their role in the sentence where it correlates with that of the corresponding adverbial modifiers. Accordingly, there are two common groups of adverbial clauses distinguished in the contrasted languages: 1) adverbial clauses expressing the adverbial relations proper (the adverbial clauses of place, time, condition, concession, purpose, cause and result); 2) adverbial clauses expressing the quality of relations or their quantity. These are the adverbial clauses of manner or attending circumstances and the adverbial clauses of measure and degree.

This typologically relevant classification also roughly corresponds to the quantitative representation of these groups of clauses in the contrasted languages.

Typological Features of the Adverbial Clauses of Place (місця)

The distinguishing semantic and functional characteristic features of each adverbial clause in English and Ukrainian are common. These clauses they define: a) place or direction of the action/state in the matrix clause; b) they are introduced in English by the adverbial connectors where to, where/from, where, whence, wherever, everywhere corresponding to Ukrainian adverbial connectors де, куди, звідки.

The adverbial clause of place may be located in English and Ukrainian both in preposition and in postposition to the matrix clause. Cf.

Where there is a will, there is a way. Де вони проходили, ніщо не

(Proverb) брязнуло, не тріснуло... (Гончар)

Lupins grew where the springs ran. Ти пішов лейтенантом, де тане

(O'Dell) далечінь... (Сосюра)

A peculiar feature of Ukrainian subordinate clauses of place is the obligatory use of relative adverbial connectors and the correlating with

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them adverbs, when the predicate verb in the matrix clause express motion. As a result, these connectors form with the relative adverb regular semantic units like тут/там — де/куди, звідки; туди — с куди, звідки; звідти — де/куди, звідки; скрізь — де/куди, звідки. Cf. Скрізь, де серце людське б'ється, славте месха Pycтавелі (Рильський) Я й справді бо... злітав аж ген туди, звідкіль мені земле була — як на долоні. (Тичина) Параска похитнулася, глянула туди, куди ткнула Зінька рукою. (Мирний)

The correlating adverbs in such Ukrainian complex sentences peform a constructive syntactical function which is especially evident in clauses expressing arbitrary location: Cf. Де б не був, всюди почуває себе запеленгованим. (Гончар) І де не ступить кований каблук, там квіти гніву ясно багряніють. (Сосюра)

Isomorphic, however, is the structure of English complex sentence with the subordinate clauses introduced by the adverbial group "where there." Cf. Where there are geese, there's dirt. Where there are bees there will be honey. (Proverbs)