І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

A compound sentence may incorporate a whole complex sentence used after the first clause (following the conjunction) and thus become compound-complex. Cf.

Not infrequently a subordinate clause may conclude the co-ordinate clause in the compound sentence, thus forming a compound-complex by structure sentence, eg:

"Now is it sight or is it scent that Чи це краєвид приваблює, а чи

brings them like that? запах, що вони всі (метелики)

(Hemingway) летять сюди?

Mae never read the newspapers, Mi ніколи не читала газет і

and was only vaguely conscious тільки якось підсвідомо сприй-

that there was a war. (Reed) мала те, що йде війна.

Compound-Complex Sentences in English and Ukrainian

Compound-complex sentences present an isomorphic type in the system of composite sentences of the contrasted languages. These sentences consist of two or more complex sentences preceding and following the co-ordinate conjunction. Hence, there can be distinguished in English and Ukrainian both unextended and extended compound-complex sentences.

The pattern of an unextended compound-complex sentence in the contrasted languages is as follows: a complex sentence + conj.+ a complex sentence, for example: "I suppose 1) I'm silly but that's the way 1) I am" (Anderson). Я вважаю, 1) що я дурний, але так уже сталося, 1) що я (є) такий.

Extended compound-complex sentences consist respectively of more than two complex sentences to the left and to the right of the co-ordinate conjunctions. Cf. It was, 0) she knew, the best water colour 1) she had painted in her four years at a high-school as art student and she was glad 1) she had made something 2) Miss Dietrich liked well enough to permit to enter in the contest 3) before she graduated. (Hughes) This sentence fully preserves its structural form in Ukrainian. Cf. Це був, 0) вона знала, її найкращий акварельний малюнок, 1) який вона зробила за свої чотири роки навчання в художньому училищі, і вона була рада, 1) що їй пощастило намалювати щось таке, 2) що дуже сподобалося викладачці міс Дітріх, 3) яка й дозволила їй взяти участь у передвипускному конкурсі.

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Allomorphism may sometimes be observed in Ukrainian equivalents of English compound-complex sentences containing two adversative conjunctions, the main of which may be omitted in Ukrainian:

The omission of the joining conjunction (але) in the Ukrainian equivalent of the above-given sentence can be a testimony to the existence of asyndetic compound-complex sentences in present-day English as well.

TYPOLOGY OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Like the simple and compound sentence, the complex sentence too presents a universal unit in the syntactic systems of all 5,651 languages of the world. Consequently, this type of composite sentence has some isomorphic features of its own. They are in the contrasted languages as follows: 1) the complex sentence has a polypredicative nature; 2) it is characterised by the subordinate way of joining the clauses to the principal/matrix clause; 3) it may consist of homogeneous clauses or of consecutively dependent clauses joined to the matrix clause or to each other syndetically or asyndetically; 4) the arsenal of syndetic means of connection includes conjunctions, connective pronouns, connective adverbs and subordinating connective words; 5) the connectors join clauses and express some logico-grammatical relations formed within the complex sentence. These include predicative, objective, attributive and various adverbial relations expressed by the corresponding clauses which may occupy either the preceding or the succeeding position/place in regard to the matrix clause.

The nature of the many logico-grammatical relations created between the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the na-

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ture of relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-groups. Hence, there are distinguished the following typologically relevant groups of subordinate clauses:

In English In Ukrainian

1. Substantive-nominal: 1. Субстантивно-номінативні:

1. subject subordinate clauses а) підметові підрядні речення
   
2. predicative subordinate clauses б) присудкові підрядні речення
   
3. objective subordinate clauses в) додаткові підрядні речення
   

2. Qualitatively-nominal: 2. Квалітативно-номінативні:

a) descriptive attributive clauses а) описові атрибутивні підрядні

речення

b) restrictive/limiting attributive б) обмежуючі атрибутивні підрядні clauses речення

3. Adverbial Clauses: 3. Адвербіальні підрядні речення:

of time, place, purpose, cause, часу, місця, мети, причини, способу,

attending circumstances, condition, дії, умови, допусту, наслідку тощо, concession, result, etc.

Typology of the Complex Sentence with Nominal Clauses

Nominal clauses in complex sentences of the contrasted languages are characterised by some isomorphic as well as by several allomorphic features. The latter find their expression in the structural forms of the nominal clauses. Common, first of all, is the general function of nominal clauses which approximates the function of a noun or a nominal word-group. Hence, a subject clause functions as the subject of the matrix clause, the predicative clause functions as the predicative to the linking verb of the matrix clause, the object clause functions respectively as the object to the verbal predicate, its non-finite forms, adjectives, statives, verbal nouns. That is why an object clause may be obligatory in the complex sentence or optional, like the descriptive and limiting attributive clauses respectively. Common by nature is also the dependence of subordinate clauses on matrix clause with which they form a syntactic (and communicative) unit. When taken in isolation, however, they may often lose their sentence completeness, to say nothing about their syntactic/func-

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tional nature as they cease to be component parts of complex sentences. The principal isomorphic feature of nominal clauses in the contrasted languages lies in their general implicit meaning, which manifests itself respectively in the nature of their syntactic relations with the matrix clause. These relations are predicative, objective or attributive/appositive. It is only expedient to contrast the typological feature of these clauses here in this same order as well.

Typological Features of Subject Clauses

The functions of subject clauses in English and Ukrainian may both coincide and not coincide. Structurally common are:

1. Subject clauses which re-compensate or substitute the subject in a | two-member sentence with a compound nominal predicate of being or seeming. These subject clauses initiate a complex sentence with the help

of: a) the corresponding/equivalent conjunctions (that, whether, if, because, either...or, whether...or — що, щоб, якщо, тому що, чи, або...або, чи...чи); a subject clause may initiate b) with the help of the corresponding connectives (relative pronouns or adverbs): who, whose, what, which, whom, where, when, how, why — хто, що, який, котрий, чий, де, коли, як/яким чином:

What you say is true. (Dreiser) Те, що ти кажеш, є правда ...

...whether it does not create worse ...чи це не створить більших

difficulties in place of the one remo- труднощів замість цієї подоланої

ved is another question. (Voynich) — залишається ще одним запи-

танням.

The subject clause in each sentence above can equally be substituted in both languages for pronouns, nouns and other nominals. Cf. What he said is true — That/the document is true. Що він сказав (є) правда. Це/Те (є) правда.

Common in these and other subject clauses of this type in both contrasted languages is also their thematic nature.

2. The second common group constitute extended thematic subject clauses. They are mostly introduced by a pronoun (usually indefinite or

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relative) or by a noun specified by an attributive clause which constitutes with the pronoun/noun an extended subject clause that initiates the complex sentence:

All I want's to die in my own Єдине, чого/що я бажаю,- померти

place... (Prichard) у себе вдома...

The thing that made me decide on Те, що змусило мене визначитись

the place to build my house was the щодо місця для побудови

sea elephants. (O'Dell) хати, були морські слони.

Pertaining only to English are rhematic subject clauses located in the postposition to the matrix clause and introduced by the anticipatory pronoun it. Cf. It has been said that the greatest events of the world take place in the brain. (Wilde) It is no exaggeration to say that one was told he must have plums. (T. Wolfe) This structural form of English subject clauses has some semantic equivalents, though not absolutely identical in Ukrainian. The main difference, naturally, lies in the absence of the introductory pronoun it and in the use of various forms of predicate verbs. There are distinguished the following groups:

1. Subject clauses introduced by the conjunctions and joining the claus es to the predicate verb in -ся: З'ясувалося, що він перевіряє, чи справжній кулемет. (Яновський) ...і мариться їй, що йде біля волів її Остап уже вусатий, уже жонатий, може. (Головко) І снилось, як гаряче дихають дні. (Малишко)
   
2. Subject clauses introduced in Ukrainian by the conjunction що and connected with the neuter gender verb in the past tense form: Бувало, що зіпсується на мені ударник або вчиниться хімічна реакція в гримучім живім сріблі капсули. (Яновський) При цьому його не лякало, що він може оступитися, схибити. (Гончар)
   
3. Subject clauses introduced by the conjunction що and connected with the predicate expressed by a stative: Просто дивно, що йому пасувало власне прізвище. (Гуцало) Ще хоч добре, що дочка недалеко. (Головко).
   

4. Subject clauses, introduced by a prepositional connective: He поет, у кого думки не літають у світі. (Л. Українка) Note. Some English subject clauses, introduced by the anticipatory

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"it", may have in Ukrainian semantically dual subject or object equivalent clauses introduced by the conjunction "що", that connects the clauses with the definite personal single verb clause. Such nominal clauses are referred in present-day Ukrainian syntax to the group of explicatory subordinate clauses (підрядних з'ясувальних). For example:

It was rumoured that he had been Подейкували, що хтось бачив

seen brawling with foreign sailors його в бійці з п'яними іноземни-

in a low den... (Wilde) ми моряками в якомусь брудному

притоні...

No structural equivalents have in Ukrainian some transforms of English subject clauses introduced by the emphatic pronoun it. The English complex sentences then may correspond to Ukrainian simple extended or even to simple unextended sentences:

It is the smoking itself that is not Уже само собою палити/куріння

nice. (London) не гарно.

...it may be from them (dolphins) ...це мабуть від них (дельфінів)

that the name came. (O'Dell) походить і сама назва острова

Some English complex sentences of this type may have an identical structural form in Ukrainian. Cf.

It was about five years after this Це було десь років п'ять по тому,

that I decided to live in Paris for а як/коли я вирішив пожити/провести

while. (Hemingway) якийсь час у Парижі.

Typological Features of Predicative Clauses

Predicative clauses are equally characterised in English and Ukrainian by some isomorphic as well as by some allomorphic features. Thus, predicative clauses may be: a) structurally extended or unextended; b) they may perform the function of the nominal part of the predicate in the matrix clause; c) they always follow in English their matrix clause whereas in Ukrainian they may sometimes occupy a front position and even a midposition in the complex sentence; d) they may be introduced mainly

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by common semantically and structurally conjunctions, correlatives and connectives (relative pronouns, relative adverbs) which are as follows: that, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest, either...or, whether...or; who, whose, whoever, what, which, where, whenever, when, how, why — що/щоб, як, ніби/нібито, наче/ неначе, мов/немов, такий, кого, яким та ін.

A peculiar feature of English predicative clauses is that they are in the place of the nominal part of the predicate, i. e. they almost always follow the linking verb of the matrix clause: "That's what he did ". (Macken) My experience is that they're mostly pleasant. (J. K. Jerome) It was as if they had not been there at all. (O'Dell)

This same structural form of complex sentences is observed when there are some homogeneous predicative clauses following the linking verb. Cf. Our judgements were (1) that the lectures were of no importance; (2) that nobody took them; (3) that they don't matter; (4) that you can take them if you like; (5) that they do not harm. (Leacock).

Note. Sometimes English predicative clauses may be joined to be matrix clause asyndetically as in the sentence "The outcome was, the dogs never appeared again". (O'Dell) They may also be introduced in English by the anticipatory pronoun it: "It was that Mary was a lazy girl". (O'Hara)

The number of complex sentences whose predicative clauses substitute the nominal part of the predicate and follow the linking verb is restricted in Ukrainian. However, equivalents to some English predicative clauses of this type can be found in Ukrainian as well:

...my only fear was that you would... єдиним моїм побоюванням

be bored. (Maugham) було, що ти нудитимешся.

That was as far as he got. (Anderson) Це/то було настільки далеко він

забрався/зайшов.

The main group among present-day Ukrainian predicative clauses that identify or specify the nominal part of the matrix clause are the ones introduced by the demonstrative pronouns "такий, той" which may be preceded by the negative particle "не": Команду подали пошепки, а

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враження було таке, що пролунала вона громом. (Гончар). Він був не з тих, що швидко погоджуються. (Руденко). Та часи тепер були зовсім не ті, щоб однією пихою жити. (Мирний).

Structurally similar, though of different nature, are complex sentences whose matrix clauses in Ukrainian contain a nominal part of the predicate expressed by an ordinal numeral or by an adjective specified by a demonstrative or relative pronoun хто/кого, такий, така, таке, такі: Ганна була першою, кого Крайнєв зустрів в інституті. (Собко) Моє життя зараз таке коротке, що я кроками можу зміряти його. (Коцюбинський) Чоловік це був такий високий, що в хаті зробилося раптом тісно й темно. (Тютюнник) Pertaining to only Ukrainian are complex sentences whose matrix clauses have a simple nominal predicate expressed by a demonstrative pronoun, which may be preceded by the negative particle не, or by an adjective often emphasised by a demonstrative pronoun. Cf. Я той, що греблі рвав. (Воронько) Та й люди у них не такі, щоб пустили докторів на свої виноградники. (Коцюбинський) Сьогодні я такий веселий, що молодіти хочу знов. (Сосюра) Повітря таке запашне од гірських трав, що аж п'янить. (Коцюбинський).

Ukrainian predicative clauses have often an implicit attributive meaning specifying the antecedent of the matrix clause: Круто повернувся і вийшов з-за перегородки такий же поважний і урочистий, яким і зайшов сюди. (Шовкопляс) Тарас дивився на Остапа такий здивований, начебто це був і не Остап зовсім... (Довженко).

The most striking allomorphism in the system of predicative clauses in the contrasted languages, however, is their ability (in Ukrainian) to occupy sometimes the initial and seldom even the midposition of the complex sentence. This is observed when an identity of a corresponding feature in the predicative clause and in the matrix clause is to be emphasised or determined. Cf. Яке життя, таке й товариство. (Мирний) Який Сава, така й слава. Or in the interposition: Першим, кого він побачив, був Захар Побережний, знатний хлібороб. (Стельмах)

Common in the syntactic systems of both contrasted languages are complex sentences consisting of two subordinate clauses, the first of which is in the position of the subject clause and the second, following

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the linking verb, is the predicative clause. Complex sentences of this type are almost identical in both languages by their structure with the exception of the demonstrative pronoun той/те, which can sometimes be omitted in English. Hence, the sentences are easily transplantable, eg:

...all she knew was that it was ...все, що вона знала, було те,

wonderful. (Saroyan) що це просто прекрасно.

What had troubled her was that she Що її турбувало, було те, що вона

had no thread to mend her children's не мала ниток, аби полатати

clothes. (Parker) своїм дітям одежини.

Typological Features of Object Clauses

The object clauses being of the same nominal nature as the subject and predicative clauses, are introduced in the contrasted languages by two common means: a) syndetically and b) asyndetically. The syndetic means are conjunctions (that, if, whether, lest), correlatives (either, or, whether... or), connective pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever which), and connective adverbs (where, when, whenever, why, how). Their corresponding syndetic means in Ukrainian are respectively subordinating conjunctions and pronominal correlatives що, щоб, чи; чи...чи; хто, котрий, який; де, коли, звідки, куди, чого, чому, як. Common are also some other features of object clauses, namely: 1) they complement the objective verb predicate or refer to a verbal noun, some statives, adverbs or to adjectives expressing perception, desire, feeling, assurance (certain, sure, sorry, anxious, pleased). The only exception are statives which do not always correlate/coincide lexically and can not be transplanted from English to Ukrainian. Cf.

"I regret that there is no mistake..." "Я жалкую, що тут немає помилки".

(Greene) (Жаль, що тут немає помилки).

"I'm afraid I can't help you". Матросам робилося прикро,

(Christie) що вони стоять у морі без діла. (Кучер)

"But aren't you glad I came today?" "Хіба ти не радий, що я прийшов

(Gardner) сьогодні?"

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2) object clauses in English and Ukrainian are of common syntactic nature and express an identical nominal derivation. They occupy a strong substantive position which is manifested by the introductory conjunctions, connective pronouns and in some cases by the use of introductory prepositions. For example:

"I know that his is a fantastic "Я знаю, що це його захоплююча

story." (Maugham) оповідь. "

"Go ahead and tell me what "Продовжуй і розкажи, що/було

happened." (Saroyan) трапилося потім."

І was supposed to see with what Я мав побачити, з якім апетитом

appetite she ate. (Maugham) вона їсть.

Allomorphism is also observed in the nature and structure of some Ukrainian connectors among which there is the particle чи corresponding to the English conjunctions whether and if. Besides, the correlating pronoun він is often a part of the matrix clause (as in other nominal clauses). Cf.

"I wonder whether he already knew "Мене цікавить, чи він уже знав

the contents of my telegram." (Greene) тоді зміст моєї телеграми."

"І don't want to pry into what "Я не хочу втручатись у те,

doesn't concern me." (Maugham) що мене не стосується."

The correlating pronoun me, as in the object clause above, may be used in Ukrainian complex sentences in different case forms. Cf. Твір більше виграє від того, що ви зачепили в ньому проблему хліба. (Гуцало) Після ретельних підрахунків помирилися на тому, щоб іти пішки. (Гончар).

Correlating prepositional pronouns can perform the same function in English object clauses as well. Cf. "You may rely on it that I shall give you a full account". (Doyle)

One more isomorphic feature of object clauses in the contrasted languages lies in their ability to have the implicit "background of adverbial events." [30] The latter are introduced in these clauses by the corresponding relative adverbs of time, place, manner, cause and by the conjunction if that expresses choice and has the meaning of the particle "чи" in Ukrainian. The implicit meanings may be of:

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