Geum.ru

А. Л. Пумпянский написал серию из трех книг по переводу

Вид материалаДокументы

Содержание


Continuous tenses
Подобный материал:
1   ...   13   14   15   16   17   18   19   20   ...   34
§ 136. Употребление предлогов by и with

в страда тельном залоге . Действующее лицо или пред-

мет, выражаемые существительным или местоимением, вводятся в

пассивную конструкцию предлогами with или by, которые в англий-

ском языке передают отношения, выражаемые врусском языке твори-

тельным падежом (кем, чем?). Например:

Многие цеха оборудованы автоматическими механизмами.

«Мацу shops are equiped with automatic machinery».

Это было сделано многими учеными. «This was done by many

scientists».

Первые эксперименты были проведены несколькими учены-

ми. «The early experiments were carried out by several scientists».

Вопрос о том, когда в английской научной и технической

литературе следует применять предлоги with и by, является

сложным и фактически неисследованным.

Как известно, в русском языке вопрос «кем?» относится к

одушевленным, а вопрос «чем?»— к неодушевленным предме-

там. По аналогии принято считать, что английский предлог

by требует вопроса «кем?», a with — вопроса «чем?». На-

пример:

Этот метод нитрования был уже описан несколькими уче-

ными (кем?). «This method of nitration has been reported by

several investigators».

Белок фильтровали, промывая водой, и буферные соли

удаляли смолой Биодеминролит (чем?). «The protein was

filtered, washed thoroughly with water, and the buffer salts

were removed with Biodeminrolit resin».

Однако фактически вопрос об употреблении предлогов

by, with гораздо сложнее: когда в предложении указаны и

деятель и орудие действия, то деятель часто вводится пред-

логом by, независимо от того, является ли он одушевленным

или неодушевленным предметом, а орудие действия — пред-

логом with. В связи с этим в научной и технической литера-

туре наблюдается сложная дифференциация употребления

в страдательном залоге предлогов by и with в зависимости

от того, воспринимает ли пишущий данное дополнение в

качестве деятеля или орудия действия.

К невещественным существительным, которые обычно

употребляются в английской научной литературе с предло-

гом by, относятся слова типа: «метод», «методика», «процеду-

ра», «процесс», «реакция», «модификация» и очень обширная

группа слов, указывающих на отдельные этаны эксперимен-

та, например: путь, ход, сдвиг, обработка, перегонка, пре-

вращение, расщепление, присоединение, отщепление и т. п.;

гидролиз, синтез, анализ, пиролиз и т. п.; восстановление,

окисление, нитрование, фильтрование и т. п.; гидрирова-

ние, галоидирование,


фосфорилирование, формирование, арилирование, метилиро-

-

вание и т. п. разгонка, возгонка (сублимация) и т. п.; хроматогра-

фия, рентгенография, спектрография, излучение, облучение и

т. п.

Например:

Tantalum penaiodide was prepared in part by the method of Alexander

and Fairbrother and in part by the more convenient method described

by Rolsten. All the halides were purified by fractional sublimation

and sealed in vacuo into fragile hook-ended ampoules from

which they were sublimed into the reaction system. Uridine-2',-3',

cyclic phosphate (0,17 mmole) was prepared by the ethyl chloroformate

method and dried overnight. The halogenouridylic acids were

then converted into the respective 2',3' cyclic phosphates and polymerised

by methods previously described. The cis-syndiketone was reduced

by the Ponndorf reaction in propan-2-ol with aluminium isopropoxide

as described above, affording a crude cream-coloured

solid. In this case the intermediate butyric acid derivatives are apparently

not stabilised by reaction with methanol.

The following compounds were pure commercial samples, or were

prepared by standard metathetical reactions: lithium, sodium, potassium,

rubidium caesium, ammonium, tetramethylammonium, silver,

thallous, thorium, lead, mercurous, and mercuric iodates. The

corresponding ammonium salt was prepared by a similar procedure.

Potassium hexaiodatotitanate was prepared by a modification of the

literature method. Conversion of the acid (V; R = H) Into 2,3-

benzoxanthone (XIV) was carried out by two routes. Thus the v (CH)

absorption of ethyl propiolate shifts and broadens considerably as

compared with the hexane spectrum, and this is supported by the

observed shift in v (CO). Potassium borohydride (4 g.) was added

to the solution of the periodate-oxidised polysaccharide and, after 3

days, excess of borohydride was destroyed by treatment with Amberlite

resin IR-120(H+), the solution was concentrated, and the reduced

periodate-oxidised polysaccharide (3.5 g.) was precipitated by the

addition of acetone (3 vol.) by fractional distillation and collected

over narrow ranges. In a trial experiment, a paper chromatogram of

dextran degraded by acetolysis showed the expected result, that the

«nigerose» component was now present in a much greater quantity

than was formed by aqueous acid hydrolysis. Most of the latter

was removed by distillation. The acid was removed by addition of a

few ml. of 0.5% methanolichydrogen chloride, followed by distillation

with repeated additions of methanol. The final polymer was readily

hydrolysed by distillation with water. Most studies of the kinetics of

reactions involving two proton transfers have been made indirectly, e.

g., by racemisation, isotope exchange, or halogenation. This assignment

of structure was supported by cleavage of the substance by the boron

trifluoride-ether complex to material shown by its ultraviolet absorption

spectrum to contain a lOb, 11-double bond. The [most

likely explanation for the


increased entropies is provided by built-in salvation,'» suggested by

Bun-nett and Morath. The yields of major products formed by pyrolysis

of n-octyl nitrate at 116° and 132° are shown in the Table. Concentrations

of oligosaccharide solutions were measured by acid hydrolysis

to glucose, unless otherwise stated. The solvent was removed

from the dried ethereal extract to leave a thick brown oil (3,8

g.), which was purified by repeated sublimation at 100—120°/0,5 mm,

affording colourless prisms, m. p. 84—86°, identical with the product

of the previous experiment.

4,5,5-Trimethyl-l-pyrroline (2 g.) was converted into its hydrochloride

by treatment with the equivalent amount of concentrated hydrochloric

acid. The isomaltose component was removed by chromatography

on thick paper to give chromatographically pure material.

The mixture of sugars was separated by chromatography on thick

filter paper into glucose. The compound was shown by infrared

spectra to be identical with the trans-anti-ketone. This was confirmed

by infrared spectroscopy.

§ 137. После предлога by доп о лнение часто выра-

жается ингово й формой (герундий, см. § 103).

Например:

The hydrochloride of the di-iodo-compound is very sparingly

soluble in boiling 2N-hydro-chloric acid, and traces of 3'-iodo-L-

thyronine are easily removed from 3',5'-di-iodo-L-thyronine by

treatment with hydrochloric acid. З'-iodo-L-thyronine was conventiently

prepared by treating thyronine with an excess of iodine and

removing the di-ido-thyronine as its hydrochloride.

Slow linear sweep of the field for phase-sensitive detection was

obtained by feeding the output from a Miller sweep generator into

the control amplifier of the power unit. The purity of the stable

isotopes was established by analysing the solutions of the dissolved

metal beads, but only limited quantities could be spared for the

analysis and the limits of impurity given in Table 2 reflect

this. After the solution had been kept for 17 hr., the acid was removed

by stirring in barium carbonate, and the precipitate was removed

in a centrifuge. Identification of this material was confirmed

by comparing its infrared spectrum with that of authentic material.

Potassium hydrogen di-iodate (bi-iodate) was obtained by crystallising

equimolar quantities of the constituents from hot water, and

deuteroiodic acid from a solution of iodine pentoxide (dried for several

days at 200—210") in deuterium oxide.

Anhydrous nickel iodate was prepared by heating together nickel

nitrate and iodic acid in 8N-nitric acid, and ferric iodate by adding

ferric nitrate in 4N-nitric acid to boiling aqueous iodic acid.

Potassium hexaiodatomanganate (IV) was obtained by boiling together

freshly precipitated manganese dioxide, iodic acid, and potassium

iodate, according to Berg's method.


The alkaloids, recovered by extraction with chloroform (4x

300 с. с.), were converted into their hydrochlorides by dissolving

them in methanol (150 с. с.), adding concentrated hydrochloric acid

(20 с. с.), and precipitating the salts with ether.

§ 138. Когда процессы выражаются не существительными, а

глаголами в личной форме страдательного залога [например, is

(are, was, were) oxidised, а не oxidation, oxidising; is (are, was,

were) treated, а не treatment, treating, вещества, которые исполь-

зуются для осуществления этих процессов, часто вводятся

предло гом with.

Например:

When 3-nitropurin or 2-hydroxy-3-nitroanthra-l,4,9,10—di-

quinone is oxidised in methanol with lead dioxide or potassium permanganate

2-hydroxy-3-nitroacetyl-l,4-naphthaquinone (III) is

formed directly.

After being stored overnight, the solutions were neutralized

with acetic acid and evaporated. The products were only partly

soluble in water, so the deacetylation was repeated to give material

completely soluble in water. This was treated with Biodeminrolit

resin and evaporated to a syrup.

(a) 3-Nitroalizarin. When 3-nitroalizarin was oxidised in methanol

with lead dioxide the first relatively stable product was a

methyl ether (I) of 3-nitropurpurin, which on hydrolysis with aqueous

hydrobromic acid was converted into 3-nitropurpurin (I). Solvent

was removed and the polymer was precipitated with 1 : 1 ether-cyc-

lohexane (3 с. с.), then dissolved in water and neutralised with tributylamme.

The trisaccharide (10 mg.) was reduced with sodium borohydride

(20 mg.) for 24 hr. When it was hydrolysed with 1,5 N — sulphuric

acid for 6 hr. the glucose liberated amounted to 65% of that

from an equivalent weight of unreduced trisaccharide. The acetates

were extracted with chloroform (3 X 100 ml), and the combined extracts

were washed with sodium hydrogen carbonate solution and

water and then dried (Na2S04). In a trial experiment the dextran was

hydrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid to degrees of conversion into

glucose ranging from 20 to 51 %.

Optical spectra were measured with a Gary recording spectrophotometer.

The column was eluted with water to remove glucose.

§ 139. Встречается также у п отребле ние предло-

гов with и by в тождественных контекстах ,

что, по-видимому, указывает на отсутствие сознательной диффе-

ренциации между орудием действия и непосредственным деятелем.

Например:

The acid polysaccharide (3g.) was hydrolysed by N-sulphuric

acid (50 ml.) at 100° for 4 hr. Since chromatography showed several

oligosaccharides, both neutral and acidic, the mixture was


rehydrolysed with N-sulphuric acid (30 ml.) at 100° for 2 hr. In a similar

reaction but with decomposition by water and ice, sulphur (0,7

g.) was obtained from the ethereal and thiolbenzoic acid from the

aqueous layer. In a similar reaction decomposition with water afforded

an unidentified oil from the ethereal layer and benzoic acid from the

aqueous layer.

Thus 1 mol. of dibenzoyl disulphide with 3 mols. of phenylmagnesium

bromide or phenyl-lithium afforded triphenylrnethyl thiolbenzoate

after decomposition by acid. Decomposition with ammonium

chloride in case of the magnesium compounds and with water in case

of lithium compounds gave, as expected, the triarylmethanols.

2-Phenylethanol has been found to be oxidised by ammonium

metavandate to benzaldehyde, benzoic acid, and formic acid under

conditions in which (a) dehydration to styrene did not occur and

(b) phenylacetic acid>
was rapidly oxidised. This olefin is only slowly oxidisedby vanadium

(V), a:id it cannot be the immediate precursor. Mild oxidation

of either y-oxo-y-2-xanthenylbutyric acid (I) or its methyl ester

by potassium permanganate in aqueous acetone yielded y-oxo-y-2-

xanthonylbutyric acid (II; R=H) or its methyl ester respectively.

Oxidation of the sugar with periodate gave 0,06 mol. of formaldehyde.

Reduction of the sugar with potassium borohydride followed

by oxidation with periodate gave 0.87 mol. of formaldehyde.

It may be emphasised that in dioxan solution no significant phosphorylation

of 5'-hydroxyl groups by diphenyl phosphorochlo-ridate

occurred under the conditions employed. The present paper deals

with the chemical oxidation of 3-nitro-alizarin and -purpurin by

lead dioxide and potassium permanganate in methanol containing

some acetic acid; in the following paper we compare the course of

this oxidation with the photochemical degradation. Oxidation of

the sugar with sodium metaperiodate in the presence of sodium hydrogen

carbonate gave 0.04 mol. of formaldehyde. Hydrolysis of the

diketo-ester (II; R = Me) with 5% alcoholic potassium hydroxide

gave the diketo-acid (II; R = H), but treatment with 10% aqueous

sodium hydroxide led to a phenolic acid. When this procedure failed

to provide crystalline sulphone, the mixture was decomposed by ice

and dilute hydrochloric acid, and the ethylene dichloride layer was

separated and dried after being washed successively with water,

dilute sodium hydroxide solution, and water again.

In control experiment, treatment of e-galactan with N-sulphuric

acid at room temperature for 30 min. afforded no detectable reducing

sugars. However, Kulkarni and co-workers obtained mixtures

of cis- and trans-3, 4-diols on reduction of dihydrofisetin and dihydro

4'-methoxy-6-methylflavonol by lithium aluminium hydride. Bognar

and Rakosi found that the reduction of dihydroflavonol by hydrogen

over a supported palladium catalyst gives the trans-3,4-diol in


both solvents. Reduction of the derived methyl ester methyl glycosides

with potassium horohydride, followed by hydrolysis, gave galactose

only. Oxidation of the disaccharide with periodate gave

only traces of formaldehyde, whereas oxidation of the acidic disaccharide

alcohol (from reduction by borohydride) gave 0,85 mol. of formaldehyde,

a result consistent only with the presence of a 1,5- or 1,6-

linkage. Conversion into the methyl ester methyl glycosides, reduction

with potassium borohydride, and hydrolysis gave arabirio-se and

galactose (chromatography). Similar treatment of the disaccharide

alcohol (from reduction by potassium borohydride) gave only arabinose.

Aliquot (arabinose) were withdrawn at intervals, excess of

periodate was destroyed by ethylene and the liberated acid was titrated

with 0,015 N-sodium hydroxide. The ether was removed and

replaced by xylene, and the solution heated at 90° overnight. In contrast

to the rapid reaction of these anilides, the quinoxalines (VI

a-d) and the pyrazine (VII) were all unchanged by concentrated

sulphuric acid at room temperature. In pyridine solution the 5'-

hydroxyl group was phosphorylated by P1P2-dibenzyl P1P2-diphenyl pyrophosphate,

tetra-allyl pyrophosphate, and tetrabenzyl pyrophosphate

in that order of reactivity. The normal wave-guide connected

to the heat-break was warmed by a small heater, to prevent condensation

of moisture.

§ 140. Нередко вместо пр едло го в by и with

у п отребляется сочет а ние by means of.

Например:

The magnetic field was measured by means of a marginal oscillator

proton resonance meter.

The second harmonic of the frequency of the resonance was measured

by means of a T74 frequency meter, manufactured by Telemechanics

Ltd.

The values of «g» were calculated directly, the microwave frequency

being measured by means of a Philips wavemeter, type

RP4290X.

Exinite and micrinite, which are richer and poorer respectively

than vitrinite in hydrogen, differ in density and can be fractioned,

though with difficulty, by means of liquids differing in specific

gravity.

§ 141. Следует также отметить, что предлог by входит

в с о став некоторых глагольных сочетан и й и

отвечает на вопросы: кем? чем? (например: to be followed by, to

be accompanied by, to be provided by, to be substituted by, to be

affected by, и т. п.). Например:

То, что за раскрытием эпоксидного кольца не следует переме-

щение брома к алкоксидному кислороду, не является


неожиданностью. «That opening of the epoxide ring is not followed

by displacement of the bromine by the alkoxide oxygen is not

surprising*.

Реакция сопровождалась бурным выделением тепла. «The reaction

was accompanied by violent evolution of heat».

Водородные атомы СН2-групп замещаются углеводородной

группой обычным способом. «The hydrogen atoms of the CH2

groups are substituted by the hydrocarbon group in a regular manner

».

На результаты повлияло наличие примесей. «The results were

affected by the presence of impurities».

На скорости и молекулярные веса влияет понижение темпера-

туры. «The rates and molecular weights are affected by lowering the

temperature».

Еще примеры: The d. c. magnetic field was provided by an 8"

pole piece magnet with a 2 1/2" gap. Power for the magnet was provided

by a stabilised power supply. The magnet and power unit

were manufactured by Newport Instruments Ltd.

§ 142. Уп отребление в одно м пр едло ж eja ии

страда тельного и де йс тв итель н ог о залога.

В английской научной и технической литературе нередко мож-

но встретить в одном предложении страдательный и действитель-

ный залог. Например:

Кислород берут прямо из цилиндра и он проходит через

уменьшающий клапан цилиндра. «Oxygen is drawn directly from a

cylinder and passes through the cylinder reducing valve».

Четыре стеклянные трубки длиной в 135 лш. входят в отверстия

и на них насажены резиновые наконечники с маленьким отвер-

стием в центре. «Four glass tubes 135 mm long, fit into the holes

and are sealed writh rubber washers containing a small central hole».

Это соединение могло бы немедленно разложиться с образова-

нием двух молекул этилена или его можно было бы разложить

столкновением с молекулой этилена. «The compound might decompose

immediately into two molecules of ethylene, or be decomposed

by collision with an ethylene molecule».

Трисахаридную фракцию частично гидролизовали кислотой

и она дала пять дисахаридных соединений. «The trisaccharide

fraction was partly hydrolyzed with acid and gave rise to five disaccharide

compounds».

CONTINUOUS TENSES

§ 143. C o n t i n u o u s A c t i v e . Нередко в разных язы-

ках для выражения одних и тех же смысловых значений употреб-

ляются разные средства. То, что в одном языке выражается грам-

матически, в другом языке передается лексически, отдельными

словами, и наоборот. Выражение лексических отношений в


одном языке грамматическими формами в другом языке можно на-

звать «грамматизацией лексики». Типичным примером грамма-

тизации лексики служат Continuous Tenses, не имеющие грамма-

тических параллелей в русском языке. Continuous Tenses выра-

жаются формулой to be -(-инговая форма смыслового глагола в

настоящем, прошедшем или будущем времени, в действительном

(Active) и страдательном (Passive) залоге и употребляются тогда,

когда упор делается не столько на само действие, сколько на

время его протекания.

В научной и технической литературе формы Continuous

в основном употребляются для указания на то, что действие проис-

ходит в настоящее время, сейчас, в данное время, или что один

процесс протекает во время осуществления другого процесса.

В первом случае время протекания иногда передается не только

грамматической формулой to be + инговая форма, но, одновре-

менно, и словами типа to day, presently, во втором случае указа-

ние на время следует из слов типа wbile, when, as.

Например:

Хотя этому методу в настоящее время уделяется большое внима-

ние, его возможности и недостатки еще недостаточно изучены. «Although

the method is receiving marked attention (to-day), its possibilities

and limitations have not yet been sufficiently explored».

Сферические соединения становятся сейчас все более употреби-

тельными при конструировании стеклянного оборудования. «The

spherical joint is becoming more and more useful in the construction

of glass equipment».

В настоящее время отсутствует убедительное доказательство

этого эффекта. «Definite proof to that effect is (presently) lacking».

Раньше думали, что у бактерии полностью отсутствуют поло-

вые признаки, но сейчас появляется все больше данных о том, что

они могут вступать в некоторого рода половое общение. «It used

to be thought that bacteria were entirely without sex, but evidence

is mounting up that they may undergo some kind of sexual process».

Вероятно, возможно получить большое число данных, кото-

рые в настоящее время отсутствуют в этой области. «It might be

possible to obtain a great deal of information that is presently lacking

in this field».

В схеме (а) чистый продукт выводится сверху, в то время как

более высококипящий компонент только входит в колонку. «In (a)

pure material is being taken off at the top, while the higher boiling

component is just starting into the column».

Подобно многим другим открытиям, этот новый процесс был

случайно обнаружен в то время, когда Реппе пытался окислить

винилкарбазол в N-карбоновую кислоту. «Like many other discoveries,

this new process resulted accidently while Reppe was trying

to oxidize vinyl carbazole to the N-carboxylic acid».


Во время протекания реакции имеют место изменения в реакци-

онной смеси. Субстрат исчезает, образуются продукты реакции и

обратная реакция препятствует прямой. «While the reaction is proceeding,

changes are taking place in the reaction mixture. Substrate

is disappearing, the products of the reaction are being formed, and

the forward reaction may be opposed by reverse process».