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Е. В. Воевода английский язык великобритания: история и культура Great Britain: Culture across History Учебное пособие

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Old age and death
Foreign policy and trade
The Gunpowder Plot
The Pilgrim Fathers
Civil War
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Sonnets

Shakespeare raised the same problems in his sonnets which he began to write in the 1590s. All 154 sonnets were published in 1609. Many of them were written to a friend whose name remained unknown. Another personage of the sonnets is ‘The Dark Lady’. It was believed that the Dark Lady was Mary Fitton, for a time – one of the ornaments of the Queen’s court. Now it is thought that the Dark Lady was Emilia Bassano, the daughter of a royal. It was to her that Shakespeare wrote:

My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun,

Coral is far more red than her lips red,

If snow be white, well, then her breasts are dun,

If hairs be wires, black wires grow on her head.

(Sonnet 130)

Another well-known sonnet that ranks among the best is Sonnet 90 (‘Then hate me if thou wilt…’). The atmosphere of misery and the musical effect of the Sonnet are achieved through a frequent use of long vowels (which number 22) and diphthongs (which number 34). The sonnet was masterfully translated into Russian by Samuel Marshak.

  • Old age and death

Shakespeare never considered himself a man of genius. He had his ups and downs, had to be a pawnbroker, he even had to quarrel with his fellow actors. The prospect of dying poor frightened him that is why in 1597 he bought two houses in Stratford and was proud that he would die an esquire. He enjoyed fame and was flattered when he was received by King James I. (The king discussed with him his plays, especially “Macbeth” in connection with the role of monarchy.) At the end of his life, Shakespeare suffered a terrible blow: in 1613 The Globe burnt down. Shakespeare returned to Stratford, where he lived three more years. The remaining years of his life were anything but happy. He suffered from asthma. One of his daughters was still unmarried and had grown bitter. Anne Hathaway, or Mrs. Shakespeare, had turned into an old grumbler. But in her own way, she was attached to him. Shakespeare died in 1616, presumably on his birthday. He was buried in the yard of the same church where he had been baptized and married. The painted bust on his grave shows him as he was in the last year of his life – a typical town burger, bald and wrinkled. But everybody, in their mind’s eye, sees their own Shakespeare.


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5. Shakespeare and the language
eading Shakespeare in the original is no easy matter. Although the language of his time already belongs to New English period, it is known as the Early New English. When reading Shakespeare, we must remember, that pronouns in the 2nd person singular and plural had different forms: thou, thee, thine, thy – for the singular, and you, your, yours – for the plural. Verbs in the Present forms took the ending -(e)st in the 2nd person singular: thou speakest, thou hast. Auxiliary verbs ended in –t in the 2nd person singular: thou art, thou shalt, thou wilt. There were 2 inflexions for the 3rd person singular, -s and -(e)th: he speaks and he speaketh; he has and he hath. The use of auxiliary verbs in questions>Spake you with him? What say you?

In Shakespeare's day, English grammar and spelling were less standardised than they are now, and his use of language helped to shape modern English. Samuel Johnson quoted him more often than any other author in his Dictionary of the English Language, the first serious work of its type. Shakespeare enriched the English language to such a great extent that today it has the biggest vocabulary of all the European languages. Lines from his works have become idioms: ‘all’s well that ends well’, ‘a sea of troubles’, ‘all that glistens is not gold’, ‘to be or not to be?’ and many others.

The language in Shakespeare’s plays depends on the kind of play. In his early comedies, the verse is light and the lines are often rhymed. The jesters use the language of the common people spoken in the street and in taverns. But the language of the noblemen in the first plays is rather heavy. In the plays of the second period, Shakespeare often uses blank verse. The language is full of metaphors. He freely uses conversion (transition of words from one part of speech into another): sister – to sister, father – to father, etc. and forms new words in accordance with the existing rules: to smile – smilet, that is ‘a faint smile’.

Shakespeare’s contribution to literature, and culture in general, is enormous. Charles Dickens drew 25 of his titles from Shakespeare’s works. There are about 20,000 pieces of music linked to Shakespeare’s works. Shakespeare has also inspired many painters, including the Romantics and the Pre-Raphaelites. The psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud drew on Shakespearean psychology, in particular that of Hamlet, for his theories of human nature.

Shakespeare created a new epoch in world literature. His work greatly influenced later poetry and prose. In particular, he expanded the dramatic potential of characterisation, plot, language, and genre. Until Romeo and Juliet, romance had not been viewed as a worthy topic for tragedy. Soliloquies had been used mainly to convey information about characters or events; but Shakespeare used them to explore characters’ minds.

Shakespeare was the greatest dramatist of the Renaissance. The time called for a giant to give an upsurge to English literature, and there came Shakespeare. Literary critics now say that the role of literature in Europe was so high only twice – in the 16th century England and in the 19th century Russia.





DO YOU KNOW THAT

  • The Globe Theatre (named ‘Shakespeare’s Globe’) was reconstructed in London in 1997 approximately 230 metres from the site of the original theatre.
  • The last of Shakespeare’s grandchildren, Lady Elizabeth Hall Bernard, died childless in 1670.






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1. The reign of James I

he 17th century was a period of constant change in English history. The political crises which were caused by the civil wars, the king’s execution, Restoration and the Glorious Revolution affected the lives of every single person and were reflected in all spheres of the creative arts.
  • Foreign policy and trade

Elizabeth’s death in 1603 resulted in the Union of the Crowns as James VI of Scotland became James I of England. He was the first Stuart king of England, the son of the rebellious Mary, Queen of Scots.

Like all the Tudors, Elizabeth had appreciated the importance of trade, and of securing the support of the merchant class. James I, who came from Scotland with its underdeveloped industry and negligible foreign trade, quickly threw them into opposition by his cautious and frankly pro-Spanish policy. After all the years of England’s struggle for domination over Spain, James had no desire to see the Spanish monarchy humiliated to the greater glory of English trade.

In 1604 the war with Spain was ended with a peace treaty that was openly criticized in England, because it did not specifically secure the right of trade with Spanish colonies. Soon peace with Spain passed into a policy of actual alliance, which infuriated the merchants and the Protestants. The navy was neglected. Traders complained of the attacks of pirates even in the English Channel. By that time, the Dutch had already driven Portugal from the East Indies, called ‘the Spice Islands’, and soon Holland began to replace Spain as England’s chief rival at sea.

The importance of spices can only be understood if we remember that during the greater part of the winter months, the population of England had to live on salted meat. Turnips and hay were little used, so the shortage of fodder made it necessary every autumn to kill off cattle and sheep and salt their meat. Although salt was expensive, and imported to England from abroad, the salting was usually so liberally done, that a good amount of spices was necessary to make the meat edible.

  • The Gunpowder Plot

A change in James I’s foreign policy led to a complete reversal of the situation at home. Under Elizabeth and up to the time of the Gunpowder Plot the Catholics had been in active opposition to the Crown. In 1605 a group of the king’s opponents wanted to blow up Parliament during the king’s speech from the throne. The Gunpowder Plot of 1605, or the Powder Treason, as it was known at the time, was a failed attempt by a group of provincial English Catholics to kill King James I, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy by blowing up the Houses of Parliament during the State Opening on 5 November 1605. The plot was intended to begin a rebellion during which James' nine-year-old daughter (Princess Elizabeth) could be installed as a Catholic head of state.

Guy Fawkes assisted in filling the room with gunpowder which was concealed beneath a wood store under the House of Lords building in a cellar. The 36 barrels contained 1800 pounds of gunpowder. If they had been successfully ignited, the explosion could have destroyed many of the buildings in the Old Palace of Westminster complex, including the Abbey, and would have blown out windows in the surrounding area of about a 1 kilometre radius.

Fawkes was left in charge of executing the plot, while the other conspirators left London to await news. Once the parliament had been destroyed, the other conspirators planned to start a revolt in the Midlands.

During the preparation, several of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present on the appointed day, and inevitably killed. One of the conspirators betrayed the plot by writing an anonymous letter of warning to his brother-in-law Lord Monteagle. The letter read: “I advise you to find some excuse not to attend this parliament, for they shall receive a terrible blow, and yet shall not see who hurts them”.

The tip-off led to a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords, during the night of November 4. At midnight on November 5 a party of armed men discovered Fawkes not far from about twenty barrels of gunpowder, posing as “Mr. John Johnson”. Fawkes was arrested. Far from denying his intentions during the arrest, Fawkes stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and the Parliament. He was taken to the Tower of London and there interrogated under torture. All the Conspirators were executed.

Today the English still mark Guy Fawkes’ Night with bonfires and crackers and the following rhyme:

Remember, remember the Fifth of November –

Gunpowder Treason and plot.

For I see no reason why Gunpowder Treason

Should ever be forgot.


With the development of friendly relations with Spain and, later, after the marriage of Charles I to the French Henrietta Maria, Catholics enjoyed a period of court favour. Both James I and his son Charles I were the descendants of the rebellious Mary Queen of Scots. No wonder they were supported by Scotland and by English Catholics.
  • The Pilgrim Fathers

At the same time, the Puritans, who had developed their religious views in the relative freedom of Queen Elizabeth’s reign, were outlawed by James I. In 1620 a large group of Puritans had to escape first to Holland, and then to America. They sailed on board the Mayflower which carried them from Plymouth to their new life in North America. The Pilgrim Fathers, as they later came to be known, hardly survived the first winter. It was the aid of the American Indians that saved them from death: the Indians taught the Pilgrims to grow maize which later became the main grain crop for hundreds of years. In 1621 the Pilgrims harvested a good crop and celebrated the first anniversary of their stay in North America by giving thanks to the Lord – that was the first Thanksgiving Day celebration.

The Puritans, as well as the Protestants, were drawn from the classes which had been the main supporters of the Tudors. They opposed the regime of James I which, they believed, was working to restore Catholicism. In this way, opposition to the Crown became identified with patriotism, and support of the monarchy – with those who were connected with England’s foreign enemies. By their foreign policy, the Stuarts lost what had been the main source of the Crown’s strength – its alliance with historically the most progressive class in the country.


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2. Strengthening of Parliament

n the 17th century, England was still largely an agricultural country: only the East and the South were industrially developed. Yet, the bourgeoisie was powerful enough to put up a struggle against the monarchy, because it had the support of farmers and the new nobility – the gentry. The enclosure of common lands ever since the 15th century made the English village a cradle of capitalism. Rich farmers were connected with the wool market, and their interests were the same as those of the bourgeoisie. Likewise, the English bourgeoisie>th century, the money derived from trade had become an easy way to Parliament. Successful townsfolk bought county-seats and rose to the ranks of nobility. They were called the new nobility, or the gentry.

During the last years of Elizabeth’s reign, Parliament became very powerful. All through James’ reign, the Commons quarreled with the King who assumed monopolies and raised taxes without the consent of Parliament. The struggle began anew when in 1625 Charles I took his father’s place on the throne.

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3. Charles I and Parliament

ing Charles I revived some feudal laws, which provoked a strong feeling of opposition. He also set Parliament against the royal family by marrying the sister of the French king, who was a Catholic. The English had not forgotten the Spanish marriage of Bloody Mary and the Catholic reaction that followed. Charles was eager to support the French king in his wars, and asked Parliament for money, explaining that England was in danger. Before granting him the money, the Commons wanted to know who the enemy was. Charles got out of the predicament by dismissing Parliament. Then he decided to send a fleet of ships to plunder Spanish treasure-ships. Loans, raised by the king himself, were followed by patriotic arguments. But the expedition was mismanaged and failed. England owed her defeat mainly to George Villiers, the Duke of Buckingham. Out of sheer incapacity, Buckingham soon involved the country in a war with France. After a final defeat at La Rochelle, Charles made peace with Spain and France as quickly as possible.

Meanwhile, the struggle with Parliament went on. When Charles summoned the second Parliament to ask for money, the Commons drew up a long list of grievances, and tried to check the King’s prerogatives. In a few months, the second Parliament was also dissolved. Charles I dissolved Parliament several times. Finally, the Commons put forward a list of demands: no taxation without the consent of Parliament, no billeting of soldiers on citizens, no imprisonment without trial, responsibility of ministers, appointed by the king, to Parliament. Charles had to sign ‘The Petition of Rights’ but he was no nearer to getting money from Parliament than before. The next day, the King, angry at the opposition, sent a message to the Speaker to dissolve Parliament. This act produced a storm in the House of Commons. Two of the boldest members stood one on either side of the Speaker’s chair, holding the Speaker down by force and preventing him from reading the King’s message. Parliament refused to be dissolved. The infuriated King came down to Westminster himself. By the time he arrived, the resolutions had been passed and the members agreed to go home. Charles arrested the leaders of the Opposition and decided never to call another Parliament.

For eleven years following 1628, the King ruled without Parliament. He chose as his advisers Archbishop Land and the Earl of Strafford. They represented Charles in his relations with Scotland and Ireland. The harshness of their rule gave rise to a number of rebellions. In Parliament, the Puritans formed two parties: the Presbyterians and the Independents. The leader of the Independents was Oliver Cromwell, the man who later changed the course of events in English history.

In 1639, Scotland started a war against England. The need to have an army made the King call Parliament in 1640. The Commons criticized the King for mismanaging the country. Charles got angry and dissolved Parliament. In history, this Parliament is known as the “Short Parliament”. But the Scotch marched on into the North of England, and Strafford, who had been recalled to England, advised Charles to summon Parliament again, so as to get money to raise an army. This parliament is known as the “Long Parliament” because it lasted for 19 years. Parliament passed an Act saying that the King’s ministers should be responsible to Parliament, and that Parliament could be dismissed only by its own consent. The Commons brought Strafford and Land to trial for their cruelties. Both were found guilty and executed. But the King still believed that he could turn the current of events in his favour by force. The following episode from the film Oliver Cromwell gives us an idea of what the situation was like.

Charles I believed that he could turn the current of events in his favour by force. He took no notice of the masses of artisans and workmen who crowded round his palace. Even the armed clashes between the Cavaliers and the ‘Roundheads’ in the streets of London did not make him feel that he was loosing the battle for power. When the commander of the City arsenal disobeyed the King and refused to give up his post, Charles left London. He went to the North of England, where he had the support of the old feudal nobility. But the industrially developed parts of England – the East and the South, were on the side of Parliament.


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4. The Civil War

n the summer of 1642, the King raised his standard at Nottingham. That marked the beginning of the Civil War between the Royalists and the Parliamentarians, or the Roundheads. At the beginning, the war was favourable to the King. The Roundheads were brave enough but inexperienced in fighting, while the Cavaliers were all trained warriors. The Royalist leader was the King’s nephew, Prince Rupert who had come from Germany to help his uncle. The most famous Parliamentarian general was Oliver Cromwell, who was a landowner from Huntingdonshire and a Member of Parliament. Cromwell soon began the military leader of the army. Until the Revolution broke out, nobody had known, even himself, that he had a talent for military leadership. Cromwell trained a body of soldiers, “a regiment on horse”, about whom he wrote: “I would rather have a plain captain that knows what he fights for that that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else; a few honest men are better than numbers”.

Cromwell’s army of a “New Model” was well-disciplined. His soldiers were called “Ironsides” because they were never beaten. Cromwell won two great battles against the Royalists – at Marston Moor, in 1644, and at Naseby, in 1645. These two battles made Parliament supreme in the North and in the Midlands. Finally, the King’s army was destroyed. Charles wanted to join the Scotsmen, and begged them to help him win back his kingdom. But they were bribed by Cromwell and handed Charles over to Parliament.

The High Court was assembled together to try the King and to put an end to the war. The trial was held in Westminster Hall, and lasted several days. The King was found guilty and sentenced to death. The sentence read: “… the court, being satisfied in conscience that he, Charles Stuart, is guilty of the crimes of which he has been accused, doth adjudge him as a tyrant, traitor, murderer, and public enemy to the good people of the nation, to be put to death by severing his head from his body.” Three days later, on January 30, 1649, Charles I was beheaded. England was proclaimed a Commonwealth (a Republic) and Oliver Cromwell got the title of the Lord Protector.

When the Puritans came to power, they introduced a number of measures, which were to become moral rules for everyday life. Games and theatrical performances were prohibited. It was thought that they proceeded from the devil. Statues and pictures were taken out of the churches. The music that followed services was excluded. Cromwell himself prohibited the celebration of Christmas. There were two reasons for all that. To begin with, it was a form of protest against the King’s church which was very costly, and, secondly, it was a political platform. It was during the time of the Commonwealth that pews and pulpits were placed in churches to make it easier for the people to listen to long sermons.


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5. Restoration of monarchy

en years later, in 1661, monarchy was restored, and the throne went to Charles II, the son of Charles I. Although he shared his father’s belief in the divine origin of royal power, Charles II managed his return with skill and wisdom. Unlike his father, he made peace with parliament. Many MPs were given high positions. The King punished only those who were directly responsible for his father’s death.

Charles was knowledgeable and witty, as well as pleasure-seeking. He patronized trade, arts and science.

An interesting legend is connected with Charles II’s return to London. On his return to London, Charles II stayed in the Tower, one of the royal residences. There, looking out of the window, he saw a flock of ravens on the lawn and ordered them to be shooed away. The soldiers started shooting them when the royal astrologist rushed into the king’s chamber exclaiming, “Your Majesty! Don’t you know that when the last raven leaves the Tower, great misfortunes will befall England?” Charles knew that the greatest misfortune that could befall England and him, personally, could be a loss of his head – and ordered the ravens to be left in peace. Ever since that time special provisions have been made for the ravens: they are fed and looked after by the Ravensmaster.


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6. Trade in the 17th century

n the 17th century, different regions of England became more economically integrated. No place in the country was more than 75 miles from the sea, and by the end of the century, few places were more than 20 miles from a river or a canal. These waterways became the most important means of transport which made it possible for different regions to produce and sell various kinds of goods. For example, Kent, which was called “the garden of England”, grew more vegetables and fruit to export to other regions.

Improved trade resulted in new forms of buying and selling. Besides market places and fairs, which had been the sole way of selling goods, there appeared the first shops which promoted the growth of towns. London remained far larger than any other town; its population grew up to 500,000 people by the middle of the century. London controlled almost all the sea trade with other countries. Other large cities, Norwich, Newcastle and Bristol, had only 25,000 each. The great plague of 1655 killed 68,000 people in half a year which was almost equal to the population of three large towns of the time.

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7. Political parties

n the 1670s, the most active sections of the population were the commercial classes. They took the lead in England’s home and, especially, foreign policy. Members of Parliament formed the first political parties. One party promoted foreign trade and supported the interests of merchants and the bourgeoisies. They were also supported by the Dissenters – a religious sect which had separated from the official Anglican Church. The other party, which consisted mostly of landowners, supported the interests of the gentry and the clergy.

The two parties hated each other so much that they gave their opponents abusive nicknames. Thus, the merchants were called ‘the Whigs’ and the landowners – ‘the Tories’. The word ‘Whig’ comes from the Scottish exclamation ‘Whiggam’ which was used in driving horses. And ‘Tory’ was the name given to Irish highway robbers. Later, these names came to be used by the parties themselves in their speeches and in cartoons satirizing the other party.