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Методические указания по выполнению семестровой контрольной работы с комплектом заданий по английскому языку студентов дистанционной формы обучения Уфа 2007

Вид материалаМетодические указания
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9.Nobody can say where and when spinning originated. The basic
principles of drawing and spinning - draft and twist - were known
many thousands of years ago. Spinning began with the invention of
the spindle and was a very important part of women's work.
  1. Spinning seems to be the one occupation which has belonged to
    women all through the ages. Girls learned to spin so early that
    they hardly remembered when they did not know how.
  2. The word " spinster" formerly meant "a maiden who spins" and
    even to this day it means both "an old maid" and "an unmarried
    woman". In the 16 th century the spindle and the distaff were re­
    placed by the spinning wheel. Machine spinning may be said to have
    started only in the 18 th century with the introduction of the
    Spinning Jenny.


Answer the following questions:

  1. What is spinning and its purpose?
  2. What is yarn?
  3. Whet is the difference between a yarn and a thread?
  4. What is necessary before a yarn can be done from raw
    materials?
  5. In what state are the natural fibres unsuitable for immediate
    conversion into yarn?
  6. What is adhering to the fibres when they are picked from
    the plant?
  7. What fibres are practically ready for the loom?
  8. What fibres are frequently cut into short staples?
  9. What are the basic principles of drawing and spinning?

10. When did the spinning wheel come into use and when did
machine spinning start?


Вариант II

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Weaving

1.Weaving basically is the same as darning. This method of cloth icture produces a fabric that is very strong and yet allows Mtilation to take place.


2.Most of the cloth we use is use by weaving. Practically all household fabrics and a large part of clothing materials are woven, since this method of fabric construction is equally well suited to the production of both sheer silk fabrics and thick blankets or carpets.

3.Weaving consists essentially of an Interlacing of two sets of yarns running in directions at right angles to each other. The threads running lengthwise of the cloth are known as the warp, and those running across the warp are called weft or filling.

4 . The set of warp yarns is held firmly in position on a weaving line, called the loom, and the other set, called the filling, is wound on bobbins and put into shuttles which carry it over and under the warp yarns in such a way as to produce a cloth. 5.Fabric quality depends partly on the structure of the cloth, loauee structure is an important factor in the strength of the kbrlc and its wearing efficiency.

6. The method of interlacing the filling and warp is called the weave and it may vary to meet different conditions, Fог example, is desirable sometimes to have a very light fabric. On the other hand, there are times when it is necessary to have a very heavy fabric or perhaps one to be used for lining and to be able withstand friction. To obtain all the various weaves, the warp and filling yarns interlace in different ways.

7. There are many hundreds of different types of weaves to meet varying conditions under which the cloth is to serve for use. It is possible to classify all woven fabrics into the following large 'ions of weaves: lain weave and its variations. Twill weave and its variations.

1. Plain weave and its variations.

2. Twill weave and its variations.

3. Satin weave and its variations, including figure weaving.


8. Where, and when, and how did the first weavers find out howl like cloth? Nobody knows. The earliest history that has come to us tells of people who already knew how to weave. Women living in caves and lake villages made thread and wove it into cloth. We know this because their spindles and objects used in weaving have been found in the ruins of their dwellings. Even some cloth woven by Stone Age people has been found there.

9. Until the I8 th century the primitive hand loom known from the
prehistoric times was used. It is only in the I8t'h century that
the power driven loom was invented. The invention of a power loom
was necessary to keep pace with the great output of yarns as spin­
ning machines were already driven by power owing to the inventions
made in that field.
  1. Due to this invention in a single generation the factory sys­tem seems to have completely taken the place of home weaving.
  2. The next invention in weaving was the invention of a fly 'shut­
    tle, the weaver could throw the shuttle and it would come back to
    his hand instead of his having to use the other hand to send it
    back - one motion did the work of two.

Due to this invention one weaver could weave broad cloth in­stead of two weavers who had to be formerly employed for that purpose.

Answer the following questions:
  1. What does weaving resemble?
  2. What does it consist of ?

3- How many sets of yarn must be used in weaving?

4. What are the threads running lengthwise called?

5.What is weft?

6.What machine performs the weaving?

7.What does the shuttle do?

8.On what does the strength of the fabric depend?

9.How are various weaves obtained?

10. What do you know about the history of weaving?


Вариант III

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Knitting

I . Knitting is the second of the fundamental methods of making fabrics. Instead of the two sets of threads lying at right-angles to each other that make up woven cloth, the structure of ordinary knitted fabric consists of a series of loops made from a single thread running continuously through the fabric.

2.Knitting may be thus defined as the interlacing of one continuous yarn in such a way as to form loops which are interlocked to make cloth.

3.Thus the essential element of knitting is the loop. A loop is ry small length of yarn, drawn through another loop. Each row of loops is linked up with the preceding row and is dependent on the loops which surround it.

4. Briefly, a knitted fabric is produced by making yarns into loops and connecting the loops together to form a fabric. If the yarns become broken in any place, the fabric will "run" or "ladder" for several stitches and leave a hole.

5.Owing to the nature of the texture, knitted goods are very elastic and yield readily to any movement of the body, taking the ipe of the wearer without causing discomfort. This makes it parcuticularly suitable for underwear. Due to the air spaces between the loops, knitted garments are usually warmer than those mmhIu from ordinary woven material.

6. There are two distinct types of knitted fabrics.

(a) Fabrics that are knitted with one continuous yarn, back
forth across (or round and round) the fabric, are made either

circular or flat and are constructed to give elasticity - a necessary requirement for such items as hosiery, underwear, sweaters, gloves.

(b) Fabrics that are knitted with many yarns travelling in a more or less vertical direction. These fabrics differ in structure, appearance, and elasticity from the former ones. They are always flat fabrics and cannot be fashioned. They are very durable fabrics and do not "ladder" or "run"easily.

These fabrics, because of their non-laddering qualities, are now employed for gloves, dresses, shirts and all classes of underwear

7.Fоr certain purposes knitted fabrics of both the former and
the latter type are superior to woven goods, and there is every
reason to believe that a still greater expansion of the knitting
industry will take place within some years.

8.There are two forms of knitting. The first form of knitting is
hand knitting. We don't know who invented it,where and in what
country.

9.Machine knitting is known to be first practised in the second
half of the I6 th century. Its distinctive feature is the knitting
needle. It is the needles, their placement and manipulation, that
loop the yarn, forming a knitted fabric. There are two principal
types of knitting needles, the "spring beard needle" and the "latch
needle".

10. There are two kinds of knitting machines: circular and flat.
The circular machine has the needles arranged in a circle arid
produces a circular or tubular fabric, such as stockings, underclothing, bathing suits, etc. The flat machine has the needles arranged in a straight line, the action being from aide to side and consequently produces a flat fabric with edges.

11. Both circular and flat machines are equipped with one of the
two types of needles - latch needles or spring needles. Knitting
machines having been improved fabrics produced on them have prac­tically all the desirable characteristics of woven goods.


Answer the following questions:
  1. What does the structure of ordinary knitted fabric congiet of°
  2. What is a loop?
  3. What happens when the yarn breaks in any place of a knitted
    fabric?
  4. What makes knitted fabric particularly suitable for underweni?
  5. Due to what are knitted garments warmer than those made froir
    woven material?
  6. What is the distinctive feature of the knitting machine?
  7. What is the difference between machine and hand knitting?
  8. What is the difference between circular and flat machines?
  9. With what needles are circular and flat machines equipped?

10. What is the advantage of knitted fabrics?


Вариант IV

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Cloth Finishing

1.Cloth as it comes from the loom or other machine is unfinished herefore it must have special treatment or finishing before is ready for use. This finishing has definite purposes, the f one being to add attractiveness to the cloth. Very often however the kind of cloth and its use are determined by the way it finished. 2.Whether the cloth shall be made soft or stiff, dull or glossy,and so on, depends upon the finish applied and the materials used. In addition, fabrics are often given treatments that affect the final colouring and absorbency. Many fabrics are bleached. This may be done for the purpose of producing white fabrics or to prepare the fabric for later colouring. Cotton may be mercerized to additional lustre and absorbency and to produce clearer, brigh-colours. These preparatory treatments are important to the final colour and appearance of the fabric. Synthetics require no pretreatments except possibly bleaching.

3.The natural colours of textile fibres are seldom uniform and still more rarely pleasing to the eye. Textile workers name fabrics in the natural colour greys. If the natural greys were one uniform shade, they might be useful, but there are yellowish greys, bluish, reddish, greenish, and blackish greys. Uniformity of colouf, either plain or patterned, has always been regarded as a necessary quality in cloths. To obtain uniform white, we bleach; for a single and uniform colour we dye; for coloured patterns, we enter weave with yarns dyed in different colours, or print. 4.The most common cloth finishes are: I) bleaching 2).mercerizing 3) dyeing 4) printing 5) napping 6) waterproofing, etc., the four being the most important.

5.Dyeing is a process of giving a material a more or lees perma-colour by means of a dyestuff. By the term dyestuff or dye we mean any compound which can be fixed upon a fibre as a colour. Most of the dyeetuffs are synthetic dyes. That is why the dyer must by all means possess a good knowledge of chemistry. The principle of dyeing can be simply stated. The colouring substances are i with some liquid, usually water, in proper propotions. Into such mixture known as dye liquor, the undyed textile is placed; whereupon the cloth or yarn becomes soaked with the dye. The co­louring matter either fastens itself upon or combines with, the textile in more or less permanent fashion. This passing is caused by definite affinity or attraction between the dyes and the tex­tiles.
  1. There are different means and methods of dyeing. Textiles are
    dyed in the form of loose textile fibre, in the yarn, in the wo­ven fabric or piece. Each method has special machinery designed for it. There is another method of applying colour textiles,
    it is printing. In printing colour is applied and fixed to cer­
    tain parts in a definite design or figure.
  2. The dyeetuffs used in both cases are the same except that they
    are applyed in printing in the form of a thick paste instead of

in form of a liquid, the methods of their application are entirely different.

8. In printing the cloth is run through a printing machine supplied with rollers, one for each colour to be printed on the fab­ric. These rollers engraved with the designs desired are running with constant speed and the cloth passing through them receives
the impression of the design engraved in the proper colour or dye.
The engraved rollers receive their colouring matter from troughs
below or from inking rollers.

Answer the following questions:
  1. What is the chief purpose of finishing?
  2. On what does softness, stiffness and lustre of the cloth
    depend?

3. What is the purpose of bleaching?

4.What is the purpose of mercerizing?

5.Name the most common cloth finishes?

6.What is dyeing?

7.What is meant by the term dyestuff?

8.What is known as the dye liquor?

9.What is printing?

10. What is the difference in the dyegtuffs used in both cases?


Вариант V

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New Methods for the Production of Fabrics Non-Woven Textiles


1. All the materials used in the manufacture of clothing are called texttles and are made of either long or short fibres.

These fibres can be felted together or made into a continuous thread or yarn and then woven or knitted. So from beginning to end in the production of felt, in the spinning of a very coarse thread or in the weaving of the finest silk cloth the whole process of tile manufacture consists of the combination of fibre with fibre.

2. No material is more common in the world than fibre; it is the m of all vegetable and most animal substances. Flesh is fibre; n is fibre; muscles are bundles of fibres; leaves, flowers, ts, stems of grass, bark and wood of treee are all fibres.

3. Principle fibres now in use - wool, silk, cotton, flax - have to ue from prehistoric times and are natural fibres. Today numerous chemical fibres are being introduced. These fibres are made by man and are therefore called man-made fibres. Chemical fibres are the achievement of the development of science of the 2Oth century.

4. According to their origin the fibres may be divided into vegetable fibres (cotton, flax), fibres of animal origin (wool, silk), and chemical or man-made fibres (rayon, capron, nylon etc.).

5.Weaving and knitting are conventional methods for the production of fabric which require the textile material to be spun into treads first. Besides, various preparatory operations especially in weaving are necessary before yarns can be woven or knitted into fabrics, knitted goods or hosiery. The modern techniques of ing are so highly developed that further increases in the efficency of the machines are hardly possible.

6. For this reason efforts have been made in all advanced industrial countries of the world, for many years, to develop new production methods with a view to reducing the number of operations, reasing the efficiency of the production equipment, and thus producing fabrics quicker and at reduced costs.

7. A great number of successful methods which will partly or wholly the spinning, weaving, and knitting methods, are already being applied today.
  1. One of the revolutionary inventions ia that of unwoven fabrics.
    Costly spinning and weaving operations have been eliminated in
    making certain types of fabrics which are coming into greater use
    for special types of applications.
  2. Non-woven fabrics are those in which a web of parallel, crosslaid, or randomly dispersed fibres ia held together by yarns and
    chemical filaments, by synthetic films and various chemical ther­
    moplastic means through heat and pressure.

10. Advantages which make non-wovens so interesting include the
following:
  1. they are potentially a low-cost means of converting fibres to
    fabric;
  2. they permit production of fabrics with an unusally wide range
    of properties, and uses;
  3. non-woven techniques permit utilization of fibres which cannot
    be utilized by spinning methods (i.e., those below 1/2 in. long).

11. These techniques use textile fibres which are united into loosely coherent fleeces and then made into cloth. There are already
fully automatic plants which take up the fibrous material at one
end and turn out the fabric ready for being manufactured into clo­thing from the delivery end. The total processing time of theee
plants is one hour only. This is a remarkable simplification and
acceleration of production as compared with the conventional pro­cesses composed of separate cycles of operations (spinning, wea­ving or knitting).


Answer the following questions:


  1. What materials are called textiles?
  2. What fibres are natural?
  3. How do we call chemical fibres?
  4. What groups may fibree be divided into according to their origin'
  5. tfhat are conventional methods for the production of fabric?
  6. What is necessary before yarns can be woven or Knitted?


7. Why are new production methods developed?
8. What can you tell about non-woven fabrics?

9. What do advantages of non-wovens include?

10.Where are textile fibres made into cloth?


Контрольное задание № 4

для студентов экономических специальностей

Вариант I

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Forms of ownership

I. A business may be privately owned in three different forms. These forms are the sole proprietorship, the partnership, and the corporation.

2.The sole proprietorship is the simplest organizational form. The is one owner, who usually takes the title of president. He or she can make decisions without consulting anyone. The sole proprietorship is the most common in many western countries. More that 80 % of all businesses in the USA are sole proprietorships. They are service industries such as laundromats, beauty shope, different repair shops, restaurants.

3.A partnership is an association of two or more persons to carry on a business for profit.When the owners of the partnership have unlimited liability they are called general partners. If partners have limited liabilities they are limited partners. Any business may have the form of the partnership, for example, in such professional fields as medicine, law, accounting, insurance, stockbrokerage. Limited partnerships are a common form of ownership in real estate oil prospecting, quarrying industries, etc.

4.Partnerships have more advantages than sole proprietorships if one needs a big capital or diversified management. They are easy to from and often get tax benefits from the government. But partnerhips have certain disadvantages too. One is unlimited liability.It means that each partner is responsible for all debts and is legaly responsible for the whole business. Another disadvantage is partners may disagree with each other.

5. A business corporation is an institution established for the в of making profit. The shares of ownership are represented by strock certificates. A person who owns a stock certificate is called stock-holder.

6. There are several advantages of the corporation. The first is the ability to attract financial resources. The next advantage is that if the corporation attracts a large amount of capital it can invest it in plants, equipment and research. The third advantage is that a corporation can offer higher salaries and attract ta­lented managers and specialists.

7. The privately owned business corporation is one type of a corpo­ration. There are some other types too. Educational, religious, charitable institutions can also incorporate. Usually such corpo­ration does not issue stock and is nonprofitable. If there is a profit it is reinvested in the institution rather than distributed to private stockholders.

Answer the following questions:
  1. what are three different ways that a business can be privately
    owned?
  2. What forms do most European countries have?
  3. Name some businesses that are likely to be sole proprietorships.
    Why do you think so?
  4. What is the difference between general partnership and
    partnership?
  5. In what professional fields are the partnerships found?
  6. In what businesses is the partnership a common form?