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Содержание Emprunts dans le domaine de la cuisine Les pme dans l’économie française Russia’s car market after the crisis

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Олейник Д.В., Муругов И.Е.

Don State Technical University

EMPRUNTS

The aim of this article is learning of loans from different foreign languages. In the article reasons for transition words is analysed, resulted examples of loans in many areas (sport, military, affair, computer science, music, ballet, cuisine), shown are the examples of Russian loans from French.

Loan, vocabulary, lexical system, word meaning, culture, spelling, pronunciation, adaptation.


En linguistique, et plus particulièrement en étymologie, lexicologie et linguistique comparée, on nomme emprunt lexical le processus consistant, pour une langue, à introduire dans son lexique un terme venu d’une autre langue. L’emprunt peut être direct (une langue emprunte directement à une autre langue) ou bien indirect (une langue emprunte à une autre langue via une – ou plusieurs langues vecteurs).

Quelles sont les raisons de l’emprunt ?

La langue d’un pays dominant culturellement, économiquement ou politiquement, à une époque donnée devient très fréquemment donneuse de mots: c’est le cas du français dont le vocabulaire militaire (batterie, brigade...) et la plupart des noms de grade ( comme général et capitaine) se retrouvent dans toutes les armées européennes depuis l’époque où la France était considérée comme un modèle d’organisation militaire ; c’est aussi celui de l’italien dans le domaine de la musique, qui a transmis les termes comme piano ou adagio. L’anglais, actuellement, fournit, du fait de son importance dans ce domaine, nombre de mots concernant le vocabulaire de l’informatique, comme bit et net, qui n’ont pas d’équivalent français préexistant ; cette langue alimente aussi le vocabulaire de la gestion d’entreprise (manager, staff, marketing, budget).

Des mots étrangers plus ou moins bien adaptés

Avec le temps, des mots empruntés peuvent s’être lexicalisés et ne plus être sentis comme des emprunts. Par exemple, le mot redingote est bien un emprunt à l’anglais riding-coat (« manteau pour aller à cheval »).

On voit des emprunts de l’italien : graffiti, scénario, spaghetti, une pizza

Du latin : un géranium, un opus a donné une opéra,

du grec : un problème

de l'allemand : épée, sabre , guerre, chouette, choucroute

de l'espagnol : tornade

Deux grands types de langues se distinguent, lors de l’emprunt :

*les langues qui, comme le français, gardent l’orthographe du mot étranger (ex. manager);

*les langues qui adaptent la prononciation du mot à ses habitudes graphiques (science).


On peut illustrer un aller-retour avec le nom français budget [bydʒɛ], emprunté au XVIIIe siècle à l’anglais budget [’bʌdʒɪt], qui l’avait lui-même pris à l’ancien français bougette /budʒetə/, au sens de « petit sac de cuir »

Le français, ainsi qu'il l'a toujours fait, emprunte de nouveaux mots à des langues étrangères. Ces dernières décennies, les emprunts sont massivement issus de l'anglais/américain. On notera cependant que de nombreux termes ne font que passer dans la langue et sortent de l'usage courant après quelque temps. ( Par exemples : dressing-room, public relations, dancing (moins courants aujourd'hui que salon, relations publiques, discothèque)).

Les emprunts à l'anglais se font surtout dans les domaines du sport, du spectacle, des affaires et de l'informatique ( le jogging – un casting – une start-up – un driver- un bug).

Certains mots français changent de sens au contact d'autres langues et recouvrent un champ sémantique auquel ils ne renvoyaient pas à l'origine.

Par exemple en France, il est courant qu'on emploie réaliser dans le sens de se rendre compte : je viens de réaliser ce qui s'est passé


Des emprunts russes.

Les emprunts lexicaux se constituent ainsi en un espace fertile de recherche qui suppose le contact entre plusieurs systèmes linguistiques, entre plusieurs cultures, entre plusieurs identités spirituelles.


Макияж - maquillage

Натюрморт – nature morte

Бутик - boutique

Одеколон – eau de Cologne

Шансон – chanson

Портмоне – Porte-monnaie

Сомелье - sommelier

Бистро - bistro

Филе - filet

Фондю - fondu

Новый русский – nouveau riche

Саквояж – sac de voyage

Шифр - chiffre

Шезлонг – chaise longue

Шедевр – chef d’œuvre

Увертюра – ouverture

Партер – par terre

Пленэр – plein air

Рандеву - rendez-vous

Канкан - cancan

Гаджет – gadget


Emprunts dans le domaine militaire


Ботфорты - bottes fortes

Камуфля́ж - camouflage

Абордаж – abordage

Атака - attaque

Авангард - avant-garde

Парашют -parachute

Баррика́да - barricade

Emprunts dans le domaine de la cuisine

Бешамель - béchamel

Бистро - bistro

Фуа-гра́ - Foie gras

Фурше́т - fourchette

Корнишо́н - cornichon

Котлета - côtelette

Бульон - bouillon

Блинчики - blini

Омле́т - omelette

Круасса́н - croissant


D’autres emprunts russes.

• Визави – vis-à-vis
  
• Дежавю – déjà vu
  
• Моветон – mauvais ton
  
• Пароль - parole
  
• Суфлёр - souffleur
  
• Фарс – farce (le 1-er avril)
  
• Тет а тет - tête à tête
  

Littérature

1. 
   Maurice Grevisse et André Goosse, Le Bon Usage, Bruxelles, De Boeck-Duculot, 2008, 1 600 p., § 153, a
   
2. Claude Hagège, combat pour le français, pour la diversité des langues et des cultures
   
3. Claude Hagège, combat pour le français, au nom de la diversité des langues et des cultures, page 42
   
4. Henriette Walter, L'aventure des mots français venus d'ailleurs, Robert Laffont, 1997, p. 17
   
5. Wikipedia
   

Орлова Светлана Евгеньевна

Don State Technical University

LES PME DANS L’ÉCONOMIE FRANÇAISE

The article describes very small and medium enterprises in France, their advantages and disadvantages, their importance for the economy of France.

Key words: VSE(very small enterprises), SME( small and medium enterprises), adaptability, integration, competitive, capital, demand, financial difficulties, international markets.


En Europe, les entreprises individuelles, les TPE (très petites enterprises) et les PME (petites et moyennes enterprises) occupant une place importante dans les systems productifs et crèent de nombreux employs. Cependant, malgré leurs performances, elles rencontrent des obstacles à leur développement.

Beaucoup de PME sont des enterprises à faible intensité, ce qui leur confère une grande souplesse de fonctionnement et leur laisse la possibilité de se reconvertir rapidement sur des maechés plus porteurs. Étant surtout des enterprises de main-d’oeuvre, les PME sont bien adaptées à la production de services, qui ne requiert pas un apport de capital important.

En outre, leur forte integration régionale et leur souplesse de fonctionnement leur permettent de répondre rapidement à tout variation de la demande. Dans les PME en effet, le chef d’entreprise est un “homme- orchestre” assurant les multiples function qui, dans les grandes enterprises, sont fragmentées en plusieurs services (administrative, technique, financier, ressources, humaines…).

De plus, le patron d’une PME est souvant directement impliqué dansson affaire (il y risque ses propres capitaux). Il peut en découler une prise de decision plus rapide et plus efficace que dans les grandes enterprises.

Les PME sont des enterprises pour la plupart spécialisées dans une activité, capable de fournir des prestations de qualité dans des délais raisonnables. C’est d’ailleurs la reconnaissance de leurs competences dans des domains spécifiques qui amènent les grandes enterprises à les faire travailler en sous-traitance dite “de spécialité”.

De plus, les PME supportent des coûts fixes proportionnellement moins élevés que ceux des grandes enterprises (leur capital fixe étant plus faible) et le coût de la main-d’oeuvre y est proportionnellement plus bas (main-d’oeuvre moins syndiquée, moins qualifiée et plus féminisée).

La productivité du facteur travail de ces enterprises reste relativement élevée du fait d’une plus grande implication des salaries, qui s’explique par la taille humaine de ces enterprises et une gestion plus efficace du personnel.

L’importance numérique des PME, due au nombre élevé de creations, ne doit pas occulter la fréquence de leur disparition. Leur fragilité tient à leur faible diversification tant sectorielle que géographique. Beaucoup de PME sont en effet implantXes sur des créneaux d’activité très poinus. Un ralentissement de la demande peut alors engendrer des faillites pour celles qui n’ont pas su anticiper l’évalution et s’y adapter ou qui, ne disposant pas d’une trésorerie suffisante, n’ont pu fair face à des difficulties financiers passagères.

Par ailleurs, peu de PME sont presents sur les marches internationaux, meme si ells assurent 40% des exportations franςaises. Enfin, leur faible attractivité en term de perspectives de carrier offerte les penalize dans la recherché de main-d’oeuvre qualifiée.

Les PME sont aussi pénalisées en matière de financement. Leurs ressources en capitaux propres sont limitées par l’apport personnel du dirigeant et de son entourage. Elles ont plus de difficulties à accede au marché des actions car ells se constituent rarement en société anonyme; ells ont donc recours au credit bancaire pour financer leur développement. Cependant, leur tragilité leur confère une image d’emprunteur à risqué et les amène à supporter des taux d’intérêt plus élevés que la moyenne. Certaines PME n’ont alors pas d’autre alternative que de passer sous tutelle de grands groups pour faire face à leurs besoins en capitaux.

En outré, les PME sont fréquemment dépendantes des commandes des grandes entreprises par le biais de la sous-traitance de capacité. Dans ce context, elles servent souvent d’amortisseur de conjoncture pour les grandes entreprises. Enfin, la dépendance des PME à l’égard des grands est d’autant plus forte que nombre d’entre elles sont l’émanation des précédents.

Certaines grandes entreprises, en effet, essaiment des TPE ou PME dans le domaine de la recherche, souvant par le truchement de leurs cadres, devenant ainsi de véritables “intrapreneurs”. Par ce biais, ces grandes entreprises disposent d’un vivier de prestataires de services dotés certes d’une liberté d’entreprise, mais en assumant aussi tous les risques.

La littérature à consulter :

1. Denis Clerc Déchiffrer l’économie, Syros-Alternatives
   
2. P. Combemale, J.-P. Piriou, Le Nouveau Manuel de sciences économiques et sociales, La Découverte
   
3. J. Généreux, Les Vraies Lois de l’économie, éditions du Seuil, 2002
   

Орлова Светлана Евгеньевна

Don State Technical University, Russia


RUSSIA’S CAR MARKET AFTER THE CRISIS


The article describes Russia’s car market after the crisis, the main resources which will help it to grow and to become more perspective. Also the article describes the ways of saving Russia’s car industry.

Key words: car market, sales, credits, car industry, Avtovaz, car brends, global partnerships, Gaz, banks, rouble.


A year ago Russia’s market for new cars was one of the fastest growing in the world. It had gone from annual sales of less than 1.5m in 2005 to nearly 3m and was poised to overtake Germany as the fourth-biggest car market in the world. Ernst & Young, a consultancy, forecast sales of 5m by 2012. Credit Suisse confidently predicted that sales would grow by at least 12% a year until 2012 and that by then the foreign car firms that had rushed to build factories in Russia would be producing more than 1.5m cars a year.

Although no big market has escaped the financial crisis unscathed, the collapse in Russia was swifter, more savage and shows fewer signs of recovery than anywhere else. Sales this year are expected to be about half those in 2008. In late September AvtoVAZ, Russia’s biggest carmaker, which has 25% of the market, announced the sacking of 28,000 employees, nearly a third of its (admittedly bloated) workforce. Production of Russian-branded cars fell by 68% in the first eight months. Foreign brands, which accounted for nearly all the stellar growth of recent years, saw their sales fall by 58% year-on-year in August, while local production sank by 48.5% to a mere 123,600 vehicles—just as huge amounts of new capacity were coming on stream. In the first six months, Ford, one of the first global carmakers to start production in Russia and by no means the worst hit, made just 24,600 cars at its St Petersburg factory, which is capable of churning out 125,000 a year.

There is no mystery about why Russia’s car market is reeling. Credit, which was used to finance the purchase of about half of all new cars, disappeared almost instantly because Russian banks were unusually dependent on shuttered wholesale markets. Thanks to the economy’s reliance on exports of oil and gas, slumping energy prices immediately hit both earnings and the rouble. The tumbling rouble also meant that foreign car brands suddenly became much less affordable, including those made in Russia, because most of their components are still imported. “We had to force through several price increases in a weakening market,” says Nigel Brackenbury, Ford’s senior executive in Russia.

Suzuki said last month that it was cancelling plans to build a Russian factory, but most foreign firms are hunkering down and waiting for an upturn. Ford has cut one shift in three and is using frequent production breaks to conserve cash. “The market will come back—the wealth has not disappeared,” says Christian Estève, who runs Renault’s operations in Russia. Pointing to car-ownership levels that are still less than a third of Western Europe’s and the age of the Russian fleet, Mr Brackenbury agrees: “We still believe the market will eventually get back to 3m-4m a year.” However, neither expects a rapid bounce.

Worst hit are the two biggest indigenous firms, AvtoVAZ and the carmaking operations of Gaz. AvtoVAZ, in which Renault has a 25% stake, has already run through an emergency loan of 25 billion roubles ($804m) bestowed in June by Vladimir Putin, Russia’s prime minister, and is expecting to make a loss of 32 billion roubles for the year. Mr Estève, who sits on AvtoVAZ’s board, believes that the redundancies just announced will help the firm “find a volume equilibrium”. He insists that Renault has “a long-term commitment” to AvtoVAZ, and that the use of its platforms and technology will revive the Russian firm. But if, as seems certain, AvtoVAZ needs more cash for restructuring, it is unlikely to be forthcoming from Renault. There is talk of VEB, a state-owned development bank, buying convertible bonds.

Gaz, which only 18 months ago was full of acquisitive ambition, is also subsisting on a drip-feed from the Kremlin. There had been hope that the purchase of a majority stake in Opel, General Motors’ European subsidiary, by a consortium involving Sberbank, another largely state-owned bank, would boost Gaz, one of its clients. Sberbank seemed to think it could simply pass on Opel’s technology. But Gaz will have to pay royalties to use GM’s intellectual property, just like any other company.

Mr Putin wants both AvtoVAZ and Gaz to survive, so they probably will. But although Russia’s car market will eventually recover, the same cannot confidently be said of its native carmakers.

The ways of saving Russia’s car industry.

Russia has decided to follow in the footsteps of some European countries and the US by introducing a car scrappage scheme in an attempt to save the country's automotive industry.

Companies which make or assemble cars in Russia, such as Avtovaz, by far Russia's largest carmaker, are hoping that the scheme will bring a turnaround in sales and business fortunes in the short-term.

But experts are sure that the scheme alone will not be enough to truly revive and modernise the Russian car industry.

There are a lot of additional factors which make the process of reforming the Russian car industry much more complicated than in many other countries - among them, the misuse of budget funds and lack of a tradition of creating truly competitive cars.

Also, one of the biggest problems is that too many people are employed by crisis-hit companies, but the carmakers can't fire enough people.

Avtovaz, for example, has one of its plants in Togliatti, which is a typical "monograd" - one-factory town depending on the wellbeing of a single company.

Huge job cuts would unavoidably lead to social unrests, which the Russian government have so eagerly been trying to avoid in any form since Vladimir Putin came to power 10 years ago. For several years the Russian car market was the fastest growing in Europe.

In 2008 most experts were sure that by the end of the year it would overtake Germany to become the largest on the continent.

However, the global financial crisis led to a slump in demand, and in 2009 the Russian car market shrank by half.

At the beginning of 2010 sales continued falling, while serious worries persisted about the future of the whole industry, in particular ailing Avtovaz, which makes Lada cars.

The market share of Avtovaz in Russia was about 70% just 10 years ago.

But after the period of rapid economic growth and the country's car market expansion the company was hit by a collapse in Lada's popularity among Russians.

The firm's market share dived to about 20%.

Foreign cars became much more affordable, as many leading global brands had opened assembly plants in Russia.

Price-quality ratio, which used to be Russian carmakers' main advantage for decades, has evaporated almost completely.

Consumers are increasingly interested in cost-saving cars which offer style, quality and affordability, says Steve Fowler, editor of “What Car” magazine.

However, the whole idea of creating Avtovaz was based mostly on affordability alone. The carmaker was set up with Fiat's help in the 1960s.

Investment bank Renaissance Capital pointed out in its research note, published by Vedomosti business daily at the beginning of February, that Russian carmakers were able to compete with foreign companies in price only but not in quality or reliability of their cars, "which means their market share will be shrinking gradually".

Nikolay Kachurin, Top Gear Russia's editor-in-chief, says that Russian cars are many years behind an average European passenger car.

To some extent, though, this is an advantage for Avtovaz's relatively cheap and really dated Lada Classic models - it is much easier and cheaper to conduct repair works on them in your own backyard in comparison with more modern cars.

One of the questions debated by industry analysts is whether Russia really needs to have its own car brands.

Mr Fowler believes that there is nothing wrong when a country does not have its own models.

"But I'm British," he adds, meaning that in the UK the situation has been like that for many years. All mass production car plants in the country are owned by foreign companies.

However, Nikolay Kachurin, Top Gear Russia's editor-in-chief disagrees.

In his opinion, a country as big as Russia, with its huge industrial potential, needs its own cars.

"If the country can make really good tanks, why can't they make quite a competitive car?" he says.

"It is a matter of reputation, but Russia needs it." Interestingly, for decades Russia's carmakers have been showing lots of concept cars at different industry events, but many years later only several of them were turned into models being sold to consumers.

A lack of investment has been the main problem for the companies.

"They had no funds to turn their concept cars into mass-production models. They are still implementing five-10 year-old plans," says Dmitry Belkin, an automotive industries expert from the Prime-Tass news agency.

Meanwhile, as Mr Fowler points out, "it is becoming increasingly fast to make a concept car", and there are about 480 models available now in the UK.

Mr Kachurin believes that there are enough good Russian engineers and designers in the car industry.

But, he adds, the lack of money does not let the engineering projects be turned into mass-production models, causing the best Russian designers to flee to foreign companies in order to see their ideas brought to life.

As Mr Fowler says: "Developing a car from scratch costs billions of dollars."

Besides, it seems Avtovaz does not have a lot of time to modernise its model list, because its foreign competitors have already been developing new cheaper budget cars amid the recent economic crisis and new environmental principles.

Experts agree that the Russian car market remains attractive in the long-term for both current and potential investors, as the number of cars per person in the country is much lower than in the West.

Most analysts believe that a combination of well-controlled government investment and the working scrappage scheme might help revive the market.

There is also a wide consensus that the best way for the Russian companies to move forward is to use know-how provided by their foreign partners.

One of the best and recent examples of successful global partnerships is Dacia Logan, a car made by Renault and its Romanian subsidiary Dacia.

Last autumn, the French carmaker agreed to expand its involvement in Avtovaz. Among other steps, Renault is likely to provide its budget model as the platform to change Lada's fortunes.

To some extent, this development might please those who want Russian companies to produce their own branded cars.

At the same time, it is in line with the global business trend of joining forces.

"At the end of the day that is exactly what has been happening in the Russian market," says Mr Belkin.

"We are getting to the place where the whole world has already go to."

As Mr Fowler points out, even BMW and Mercedes have been trying to work together on some projects - something impossible just several years ago.

Literature

1. “Russia after the Global Financial Crisis” Clifford G. Gaddy and Barry W. Ickes
   
2. journal “Finantial times”
   
3. journal “Russia now”
   
4. web site about car market in Russia ссылка скрыта
   
5. web site about Russia’s car market ссылка скрыта
   
6. web site about business in Russia
   

ссылка скрыта

7. web site about investment in car industry
   

ссылка скрыта

8. web site about Russian-American business
   

ссылка скрыта

9. article about the crisis in Russia’s car market ссылка скрыта