І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

3. The adverbial modifier of place and direction:
"Tell them I'll be right there". A frantic policeman rode alongside. (F.C. Fitzgerald)	"Скажи їм, що я буду там". -Якийсь несамовитий полісмен їхав поруч.
4. The adverbial modifier of degree and quality:
"Almost instantly we were shut up in a fog". (Mark Twain)	Нас майже вмить окутало туманом. Ледве чутно повіяв вітер.
5. The attribute:
"The light outside had chilled...". (Galsworthy), "...he could see them talking together in the little court below". (Ibid.)	Світло надворі охололо... він бачив, що вони розмовляли у куценькому подвір'ячку внизу.
6. As the above-mentioned already function of the predicative (in English) and simple nominal predicate in Ukrainian:
"The sun was up". (Stevenson)	Я ж іще при здоров'ї. (Гуцало)
7. The adverbial modifier of cause and purpose:
'Why do you say that?". (Maugham) 'Why don't you like those cousins, Father". (Galsworthy)	Чому ти це кажеш? Пилипко боявся, щоб згарячу не наткнутися на що-небудь... (Панас Мирний)

Isomorphic is also the expression of different adverbial meanings in both languages through adverbial (often prepositional) phrases. For example, time: I haven't made use of it all summer. (P.C. Fitzgerald). "You'll hear about it this morning." (Ibid.) Я не користувався (машиною) всеньке це літо. "Ти почуєш про це ще сьогодні вранці"; place: "That's the one from Montenegro." (Ibid.) "Ось ще один (орден) із Чорногорії." Attending circumstances: He saw me looking with admiration at his car. (Ibid.) Він помітив, що я дивлюся із захопленням на його автомашину.

Statives and their Typological Characteristics

Statives in English and Ukrainian are invariable notional words whose logico-grammatical function is to denote the physical state of persons,

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things or phenomena, the psychological state of persons, state in motion, etc. English statives have a characteristic prefix a- formerly added to the roots of nouns, adjectives or verbs (cf. afire, aflame, alike, afloat, atremble, astride, ashudder, etc.). "The lamps were still alight...". (Galsworthy) "Her little resolute face... was suspiciously eager and aglow ". (Ibid.) "1 woke at six the next morning and found George awake". (J. K. Jerome) "He had been ashamed and afraid". (P. Abrahams)

Ukrainian statives, on the contrary, are formed with the help of some suffixes, which are the following: -о: Романові стало і прикро і якось соромно (Минко); -а: Треба хазяїну на хутір... Шкода журитись, молодичко! (М. Вовчок); -е: Добре Чіпці у діда підпасичем. (Мирний) Так мені зробилось жалко і досадно. (А. Тесленко)

The category of state may be expressed in the contrasted languages by means of nouns (in English by prepositional nouns only). Cf. "She seemed on fire". (Galsworthy) "You keep me in the know". (Ibid.) Сором слів, що ллються від безсилля. (Л. Українка) Не раз він був у відчаї. (Стельмах) Страх бере, їх охоплював жах.

Statives in the contrasted languages rarely correlate lexically. Thus, English statives have mostly predicative verbs, adverbs or adjectives for their equivalents in Ukrainian. Cf.

"I lay awake a long time". Мені довго не спалось. (Я

(Galsworthy). довго не міг заснути.)

"Ruth was aghast". (London) Рут була приголомшена.

An exception constitute the following lexical correlations: They were ashamed — їм було соромно. Треба хазяїнові на хутір... (М. Вовчок) The farmer has a need in going on some business to the hamlet.

Among other isomorphic features one more should be pointed out: some statives may have grading. Cf. He is more dead than alive. She was more ashamed than anybody else. Йому стало краще. Нам тут гірше, їй там було найкраще. Йому ще холодніше, ніж було досі.

The combinability of English and Ukrainian statives is characterised by both isomorphism and allomorphism. Isomorphic are the following patterns of stative word-groups in English and Ukrainian:

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Stative + Vinf.: afraid to answer; треба працювати; (йому) соромно це згадувати; St. + prep. + N: ashamed of the deed/step; соромно за хлопця (йому соромно за свій вчинок);

St. + prep. + I: afraid of this/of everything; соромно за неї/за всіх. St. + prep. + Q: afraid of the two/three; треба для /на двох; краще для обох.

Pertaining only to English is the combinability of statives with the gerund (cf. afraid of answering, ashamed of having said that). Allomorphism is also pertained to Ukrainian in which some statives may take instead a direct prepositionless nominal complement also other indirect case forms which is impossible in English. Cf. шкода праці, треба часу, сором сліз and легше вже йому (dative case, object) вже краще малому /старшому, обом, etc. Hence, the prepositionless objective case in Ukrainian (краще йому старшому/обом, etc.) is impossible in English where nouns have only the genitive case (cf. Ann's, Peter's). Similarly with other nominals, except some personal pronouns and the interrogative pronoun who (cf. whom) which have the objective case forms (cf. me, him, her, them). A common syntactic function of statives in the contrasted languages is that of the predicate or predicative. Cf. a) as predicative: "Ruth was aghast". (London) Йому все-таки було тоскна... на серці. (Гончар); b) As simple nominal predicate: He, afraid? Мені їх не шкода, мені їх не жаль. (Шевченко)

Allomorphic for Ukrainian, however, is the function of the attribute, typical of the English language only. Cf. the child asleep, the house ablaze, the shore afar, etc.

Note. Some morphological and functional indefiniteness of statives gave ground to several Western and domestic grammarians not to recognise these words (singed out as a separate part of speech by Academician Shcherba a "legitimate" part of speech. This opinion was openly expressed by L. Barkhudarov and supported by I. Ivanova and her coauthors [15: 37-38] as well as by some Ukrainian grammarians [30] even in their latest publications [A. Hryschenko: 30].

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TYPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNCTIONAL WORDS

The number of functionals in the contrasted languages is practically the same, the only exception being the article in English. Their nomenclature is as follows: 1) modal words (and modal phrases); 2) the preposition; 3) the conjunction; 4) the particle; 5) the interjection.

Modal Words and Phrases/Modals

The lexical units belonging to this part of speech are characterised in both languages by their meaning of "modality". They are used to express the speaker's judgement concerning the action/event or object in the utterance/ sentence. These words/phrases in English and Ukrainian are as follows: certainly, indeed, maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably, of course, no doubt - певне, напевне, звичайно, може, можливо, безумовно, безсумнівно and others.

Modals are traditionally classified as follows:

1. Modal words/phrases expressing various shades of certainty: cer tainly, of course, surely, no doubt, assuredly, indeed, undoubtedly, really (певне, напевне, звичайно, безсумнівно, безперечно, безумовно, зрозуміло, правда):

"Yes, certainly they (pigeons) Так, звичайно, вони (голуби)

will fly". (Hemingway) повилітають.

"Sure, he's a bum". (Caldwell) Безперечно, він волоцюга.

2. Modal words expressing various degrees of probability: maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably (може, можливо, мабуть, ймовірно, видно, здається):

"They'll probably come through "Ну, можливо вони якось пере -

it all right". (Hemingway) живуть артобстріл".

"Maybe it was all a lie...". "Може, все це була брехня..." (Steinbeck)

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3. Modal words expressing various shades of desirability (fortunate ly, unfortunately), which have a restricted number of semantic equiva lents in Ukrainian (на щастя, на жаль, шкода):

"You are wrong, unfortunately". "На жаль, ти неправий". "Fortunately, it didn't come true". "На щастя, це не здійсни- (Jacobs) лось".

4. Modal words expressing doubt, uncertainty and coinciding in form with the modal words denoting probability (maybe, perhaps, proba bly — може, можливо, мабуть):

"Maybe it's not yet time...?" Може, ще не настав час?

(Caldwell)

"...perhaps you'd better take а ...може б ти довше/ще якийсь

little longer to consider". (Jacobs) час над цим поміркував.

The subjective and objective attitude of the speaker towards an event/ action may often be expressed by several other parenthetic words and phrases which may point a) to the authorship of the idea/assertion expressed in the sentence, eg.: they say, as reported, in my view, to my mind, 1 think - кажуть, як повідомляють, на мою думку, як говориться, etc.; b) to words and phrases expressing an estimation of the expressed idea in the sentence (shortly speaking, generally speaking, in a word — коротко кажучи, відверто кажучи, одне слово, etc.); c) to words pointing to the order or succession of ideas expressed in the sentence (firstly, secondly, on the contrary - по-перше, по-друге, навпаки, etc.).

Modals, like statives, originate from different parts of speech or phrases which acquire some modal meaning in the sentence. These parts of speech are: 1) adverbs (really, probably, fortunately справді, очевидно, дійсно); 2) nouns with or without prepositions (only in Ukrainian): in one's view, in one's opinion, to one's judgment — сором, страх, на мою думку, на мій погляд; 3) verbal phrases and sentences (it seems, you see - здається, бачите, як бачите, кажуть); 4) statives (in Ukrainian): чутно, видно, etc.

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One more common feature of modals in the contrasted languages is their position in the sentence. Most of them may occupy any position according to the emphasis they are given by the author/speaker. Cf. Perhaps he will come. He will, perhaps, come. He will come, perhaps.(Можливо, він прийде; він, можливо, прийде; він прийде, можливо). Modals may also be used in both contrasted languages as elliptical answers to some utterances. Eg:

"Maybe we better go out... "Може, краще вийдемо і роз-

and send them home?" женемо їх по домівках?"

"Maybe we better," Tad said. "Може й так,"- сказав Тед. (Saroyan)

Typological Characteristics of Prepositions

Prepositions in English and Ukrainian are characterised by both isomorphic and allomorphic features. Isomorphism is clearly observed in the morphological structure of prepositions which can be in the contrasted languages as follows:

In English	In Ukrainian
Simple: at, in, on, of, with, to, by	Прості: в, з, о, під, на, за, при, без
Compound: inside, into, within, without, throughout, upon, etc.	Складні: із-за, з-під, з-понад, попід, поперед, посеред, поміж, щодо, задля
Derivative: along, below, beside, inside, outside, etc.	Похідні: внаслідок, завдяки, коло, круг,поверх, поперек, довкіл, etc.
Composite (Phrase prepositions): by means of, because of, in accordance with, owing to, in front of, in spite of, with regard to, on account of, etc.	Складені: в справі, на відміну від, у зв'язку з, поруч з, згідно з, незалежно від, у відповідь на, збоку від, близько від, в межах, у плані, etc.

The only structural difference, therefore, is in the group of simple prepositions, among which there are some Ukrainian prepositions consisting of a single consonant or vowel (в, у, о, з). Cf. в очі, у возі, о п'ятій годині, з гір.

Mainly common are the parts of speech from which many preposi-

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tions are formed (except the diyepryslivnyk). They are: a) nouns: beside, in front of, in accordance with внаслідок, у зв'язку з, слідом за, коло, кругом; b) verbals (participles, diyepryslivnyks): owing to, concerning, including включаючи, завдяки, зважаючи; с) adverbs (the largest number): along, before, down, among близько, довкола, ззаду, обабіч, серед, etc.

The lexico-grammatical meaning of prepositions as semi-notional words is isomorphic in both languages as well. Prepositions may be temporal (before noon до обіду, after that після того, during the war під час війни, since Monday від понеділка, until he came доки він не прийде, etc.); local (along the road вздовж дороги, across the street через шлях, among the books серед книжок, in front of me переді мною), behind/over the house за/над хатою; causal (because of that через те що, in view of all this з погляду на це, or pervasive (he poured water all over me з голови до ніг); concessive (despite his expectations всупереч його очікуванням).

Prepositions are characterised by an almost exclusive bilateral combinability with any left-hand notional and a right-hand nominal part of speech/its equivalent. Cf.

A preposition expressing a relation between two entities forms a prepositional complement with the right-hand component. The latter is almost always morphologically amorphous, except when it is a personal or interrogative/relative w/h-pronoun having in English an objective case form, eg: ask about me, done by him/them, promised by whom, etc. Ukrainian

Only in English.

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prepositional complements are almost entirely marked by case inflexions, i. e. governed analytico-synthetically (cf. книжка для неї/Марії, лист від товариша, троє з товаришів, засмаглий на сонці, легко на душі).

In titles, however, prepositions may have only a right-hand combinability, eg:

"To a skylark" (Shelley). "Of Human Bondage" (Maugham), "Under the Greenwood Tree" (T. Hardy), "До Основ'яненка" (Шевченко), До мого фортеп'яно" (Л. Українка), "Під мінаретами" (Коцюбинський), "На майдані" (Тичина), etc.

A peculiar feature of English is the postposed use of prepositions in some interrogative sentences (What paper have you subscribed to?); in exclamations (What an accident he's got in!), or in the subjective with the infinitive constructions (She's impossible to work with).

According to their meaning prepositions in the contrasted languages may express various syntactic relations, the main of which are as follows:

1. Agentive relations: the play written by Shakespeare бути /під чиєюсь високою рукою/під орудою. 2. Objective relations: to be angry/ satisfied with somebody сердитись на когось, помиритися з кимсь. 3. Attributive relations: birds of a feather, the man in question товариші по школі, друзі з Канади. 4. Various adverbial relations: a) temporal: to depart on Monday, to arrive in spring від'їжджати в понеділок, приїхати в березні/через півроку; b) local: in the cottage, behind the fence, in front of the house у хаті, за тином, під лісом; с) of direction: into the room, go out of the room, he went to the door у кімнату/з кімнати, зайдіть до хати; d) of manner or comparison: to look in astonishment, the air came in a warm wave глянути з подивом; радощів у серці через край (Тичина); е) of attendant circumstances: Winter set in early and unexpectedly with a heavy fall of snow. (Cronin) зима прийшла зі снігопадами; f) of cause: My dog pants, with the heat собака задихається від спеки. Троє діток на віспу вмерли. (Федькович); g) of concession: they continued their way despite the rain, he would do it in spite of the obstacles. Чорнявому зрадливому на лютеє горе... (Шевченко). Він приїде незважаючи на хворобу; h) of possession: books of his brother, the

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windows of the cottage. Стояв генерал... при всіх орденах (Яновський). Отже, будемо й ми при розумі. (Головко). 5. Various other relations as: a) Relations of resemblance: she is like her mother (він схожий на батька), b) Relations of subordination: to be secretary to the firm manager бути секретарем у посла, с) Relations of dissociation: to be devoid of suspicion бути вільним від підозри/бути поза підозрою, etc.

These are the main but far from all the relations expressed by prerepositions in English and Ukrainian word-groups and utterances. Allomorphism is observed only in the nature of the syntactic functions of prepositions. These are mainly linking in English, where prepositions generally do not require any case form from the right-hand nominal component (cf. a book of my brother, toys/or the child, four of the boys). An exception present the so-called grammaticalised preposition of, to, for, by and with which explicitly express the corresponding case relations, namely: of the genitive case relation (books of hers, theirs), to the dative case relation (sent to them, books for him/us), by and with the instrumental (орудний) case relation (written by him/them, us, went with her, us, them), etc.

In Ukrainian, on the other hand, prepositions govern nouns, pronouns, numerals, substantivised adjectives and nominal word-groups, eg: праця в садку/на полі, лежати під грушею (під дубом), лист від нього/від першого, захист від польових гризунів, книжка для двох, переляк від червоного, etc.

Ukrainian prepositions may be used with nominals in a certain case form only, as for instance, in the genitive case (без, біля, від, для, до, and others) or with two cases, for example, with the accusative and instrumental case (над, під, перед), and sometimes with three cases (з, за, між, у): у житті, у відповідь, з горя/горем. Therefore, Ukrainian prepositions, unlike the English ones, help to express different syntactic relations through case forms of the subordinated nominal parts of speech in word-groups and utterances/sentences. Each of the more than 130 Ukrainian prepositions is used to express one or more case relations as can party be observed from the following table:

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Table 22