І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

asked — having been asked) and the ability of taking an objective complement: I like reading books, as well as the ability of being modified by an adverb: Going quickly never tiers him. The noun characteristics of the gerund find their expression in its functions in the sentence as subject, object, the predicative part, the attribute, and as an adverbial modifier of manner. For example, as subject and predicative: Deciding is acting. (Saying). As object: He won't stand beating. As an attribute: She found an opportunity of taking him away. As adverbial modifiers: The Mouse shook its head impatiently without opening its eyes. (L. Carroll) The rain poured down without ceasing. (Maugham) On arriving at the garden entrance, he stopped to look at the view. (Galsworthy) The gerund can also be a complex subject, a complex object and other parts of the sentence (cf. His being ill is unknown to me. That was his being ill that spoiled everything. I know nothing of his being ill), etc.

The Ukrainian diyepryslivnyk, whether active or passive or non-perfective present and perfective past, remains an indeclinable verbal form. The diyepryslivnyk may be formed, respectively, from the present stem of the verb or from the infinitive of both the transitive and intransitive verbs. The imperfective (present) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the present stem of the verb belonging to the first verbal declension by adding the suffix -учи/-ючи. Cf. нес/уть + -учи: несучи; працю/ють + -ючи — працюючи. Cf. Слухаючи їх жартівливу розмову, уверне слівце й од себе. (Нечуй-Левицький)

Perfective (past) diyepryslivnyk is formed from the infinitival stems with the help of the suffix -ши, added to the stem that ends in a consonant, or the suffix -вши that is added to the stem of perfective and non-perfective verbs which end in a consonant: донес/ти + -ши — донісши; привез/ти/ + -ши — привізши and similarlу~знавши, пивши, ївши, etc. When the infinitival stem ends in a vowel, the suffix -вши is added: здола/ти/ + -вши — здолавши; побачи/ти/ + -вши — побачивши. Cf. Устромивши люльку в рот і закривши очі, він ще потроху пахкав. (Панас Мирний)

Perfective and imperfective diyepryslivnyks may also be formed from verbs having the postfix [Грищенко 2002:387] -ся/-сь: Хвилюючись, все ще не опам'ятавшись, солдат розповідав про себе. (Гончар) Similarly in турбуючись, милуючись, дивуючись, etc.

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The semantic and functional equivalents to the imperfective (present) and perfective (past) diyepryslivnyks in English are indefinite or perfect participles (both active and passive) performing the functions of the adverbial modifiers of time: "...while working so hard he needed sea air" (Galsworthy); or attending circumstances: Clara sat in the cool parlour reading. (Lawrence); the adverbial modifiers of cause: "Being tired he thought of sleep." (J. K. Jerome); and that of result: ...having seen all that was to be seen he came out. (Galsworthy), etc.

The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both languages, though Ukrainian participles have gender, number and case distinctions, which are lost by their English corresponding equivalent verbals. Cf. gender and number categories: працюючий, працююча, працююче (колесо); number and case: працюючого, працюючому, працюючим; працююча, працюючої; працюючі, працюючих, працюючим, працюючими, etc.

Allomorphic for the Ukrainian language are some syntactic functions pertained to English participles and infinitives which may form with some classes of verbs (for example, those of the physical and mental perceptions) complex parts of the sentence. These parts of the sentence are completely alien to Ukrainian, cf: He was seen to go/going home. We heard him sing/singing. He wants me to be reading. The lesson (being) over, the students went to the reading-hall. Each of these secondary predication complexes, with the only exception of the for-to-infinitive construction, has a subordinate clause for its equivalent in Ukrainian: Бачили, як він ішов/коли він ішов додому. Ми чули, як він співає/ співав. Після того/оскільки заняття закінчилося, студенти пішли до читальної зали.

Other Peculiar Features of English and Ukrainian Verbs

Not only verbals with their nomenclature, forms, meanings and functions have in each contrasted language some peculiarities of their own. Allomorphisms are also observed in the formation of Ukrainian perfective verbs for which various prefixes are used. The main of them are as follows: з-, е-, за-, на-, по-, пра-, про-: казати - сказати, родити -

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зародити, сидіти - засидіти, жити - нажити, їсти - поїсти, ходити -приходити, грати - програти/виграти, etc.

There also exist correlating pairs of perfective verbs formed on the basis of the counteropposition of non-perfective vs. (versus) perfective aspect. Cf. жити - зжити/зажити, пхатись - впхатись, гнати -пригнати/загнати. Ukrainian suffixes may also be used to form imperfective verbs from perfective ones. These suffixes are: -ува-, -юва-, -овува, -ва, -а: відшукати - відшукувати, скупити - скуповувати, зігріти - зігрівати, оббити - оббивати, оцінити - оцінювати, etc.

Similarly formed in Ukrainian are some imperfective verbs from perfective ones with the help of the correlating suffixes -и- vs. -a-, -i- vs. -a-, -e-vs. -й-. For example: кінчити - кінчати, лишити - лишати, пустити -пускати. These suffixes can also express some other aspective meanings in Ukrainian. Cf. летіти - літати, котити - качати, нести - носити.

Allomorphism in Ukrainian expression of aspective meanings can be observed also in conveying some tinges of meaning via perfective verbs. For example, to express momentous action which is conveyed by the suffixes -ну- and -ону-: гукати - гукнути, стукати - стукнути, смикати - смикнути, кусати - куснути, рубати - рубнути and рубонути, цмокати - цмокнути, махати - махнути and махонути.

Present-day Ukrainian has also a small group of preffixless verbs which express both perfective as well as non-perfective meanings that can be formed within the microtext. Cf: веліти, вітати, атакувати, женити, наслідувати, телеграфувати, телефонувати. For example: Викладач велів перекласти текст (perfective aspect). Живи, як велить тобі Біблія (non-perfective aspect).

Similar verbs are observed in English as well. Thus, durative and terminative (corresponding to Ukrainian perfective) verbs in English are the following: to kneel, to know, to sit, to stand, to remember. Cf: He always sits in the armchair. But: he went to the table and sat close to her. Or: He stood at the table (non-perfective) and: He went and stood (termin.) at the table.

Non-perfective (i.e. durative action) express the following English verbs: to admire, to esteem, to detest, to hate, to hope, to love, to lie, to smoke, to sleep, to work, to watch, to possess, to want, to move, etc.

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Constantly non-perfective in Ukrainian are also some a) prefixless verbs as гидувати, гордувати, гребувати, вимагати, мислити, чекати, ворогувати, ледарювати, працювати, говорити, стежити, and others; b) prefixal verbs formed from verbs denoting unrestricted (non-terminative in English) meanings which denote thinking, perception of some action and are used with the prefix no-: погукувати, поспівувати, почитувати, пописувати, потріскувати, посвистувати, etc.

Note. Only perfective, i.e. corresponding to English terminative verbs are the following Ukrainian verbs formed with the help of the prefixes від-, за-, на-, по-, про-, раз-: відправляти, відбути, відпрацювати, запрацювати, замирити/замиритися, надуматися, нажитися, натерпітися, навчитися, повчитися, по/пробідкуватися, поплавати, поплакати, провчитися, походити, and some others.

Both English and Ukrainian have also transitive and intransitive verbs which are of the same semantic class, as the following transitive or objective verbs: take - брати, think - думати, read - читати, build -будувати, construct - конструювати, find - знаходити, etc. Intransitive or subjective verbs: to sleep ~ спати, to walk - xodumu,to go - йти, to come - приходити, to sit - сидіти, to lie - лежати, to rise — вставати, etc. The English language, however, has more transitive verbs as several intransitive verbs may become in some contexts transitive. Cf. to run the office, to walk the dog, to fell (trees), etc.

Typological Characteristics of the Adverb

The adverb in English and Ukrainian is an indeclinable notional word expressing the quality or state of an action, the circumstances in which the action proceeds, or a degree of some other quality. Adverbs in English and Ukrainian have some common, as well as some divergent features in their morphological structure and partly in their syntactic functions. Thus, English adverbs are mostly formed with the help of the suffixes -ly (greatly, slowly), -ward/-wards (seaward, eastwards), -ways (sideways), -fold (twofold) and partly with the help of the prefixes -a- (aback, aside; astride) and be- (before, besides).

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Adverbs in Ukrainian may be formed by means of suffixes, eg: -o (гарно, надійно), -е (добре, зле), -а (дарма, лежма), -и (полюдськи, по-французьки), -ому (по-їхньому), -ему (по-моєму, по-своєму) and by means of prefixes and suffixes (combined), eg: no- (no-людськи, по-свинськи), най- (найкраще, найзручніше), щонай-(щонайбільше); якнай- (якнайшвидше).

Several prefixes in Ukrainian and some in English (cf. ahead, across, beside, outside, etc.) form adverbs from other parts of speech. Thus, the prefix в-/у- in Ukrainian may form adverbs from nouns in direct and indirect cases or from numerals, eg: в + гору — вгору, в + день — удень/вдень, в + друге — вдруге, в-/у-+ третє — втретє/утретє. A characteristic feature of Ukrainian adverbs is their correlation with indirect case forms of prepositional nouns, for example: 1) adverbs correlating with the genitive case forms of nouns and the prepositions без, від/од, до, з/с, за: безвісти, безперестанку, відразу/одразу, догори, додому, зранку, зрання, скраю, спочатку, etc.; 2) adverbs correlating with the accusative case forms of nouns and the prepositions в/у, на, за, над, під, по, через: вдень/удень, вмить/умить, надвечір, навіки, заміж, надвір, підряд, повік, через силу, etc; 3) adverbs correlating in Ukrainian with nouns in the instrumental case and the lexicalisation of different phrases: водночас, насамперед, напівдорозі, віч-на-віч, всього-на-всього, пліч-о-пліч, день у день, нога в ногу, рік у рік, etc. Consequently, they correspond to the following English compound adverbs and adverbial phrases: day-long, henceforward, upside-down, moreover, therefore, within, by chance, by heart, by turns, one by one, day in day out, etc.

Equally common in both languages is the formation of adverbs by way of reduplication, eg: so-so, willy-nilly, fifty-fifty; ось-ось, ледве-ледве, скоро-скоро, тихо-тихо, etc.

A morphologically common group present pronominal adverbs (simple and compound) which are of the same roots as their corresponding pronouns. These adverbs indicate in a relative way time, place, direction or manner in which the action/state proceeds. Some of these English adverbs do not always have their Ukrainian equivalents that are tabulated below (Table 21).

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Table 21

Lexico-Syntactic Classes of Adverbs

Language Meaning	Time	Place	Direction	Manner
English	now, then, when, today, soon	here, there, where, nowhere	hence, thence, whence, inside, inwards	hence, now, how, so
Ukrainian	доти, іноді, тоді, коли, скоро, сьогодні	всюди, куди, туди, де, ніде, там, тут	туди, сюди, звідти, вліво, вправо, назад	так, сяк, як відтак, отак, сяк-так

In accordance with their lexico-syntactic meaning, adverbs in the contrasted languages fall under the following three main divisions: 1) qualifying adverbs denoting the quality or state of an action; 2) adverbs expressing the manner in which the action is performed, and 3) adverbs giving a quantitative characteristics of an action/quality. These adverbs modify the verb, the adjective, or the adverb (cf. to pronounce sounds distinctly вимовляти звуки виразно).

Qualifying adverbs in both languages may be qualitative (badly, fast, slowly, well — погано, добре, швидко, повільно) or those denoting manner of action (unawares, upside-down, topsy-turvy, by chance — нехотячи, догори дном, випадково, несвідомо, спроквола).

Qualitative adverbs also include adverbs of degree (denoting the degree of a quantity: almost, entirely, too, rather, enough, almost — майже, цілком, дуже, досить, досить-таки). These adverbs in English and Ukrainian express the intensity of an action, eg: "She scarcely knew her neighbours yet." (Lawrence) "1 was completely happy". (Galsworthy) or quantity: almost nine, almost two-thirds. Вона майже не знала ще своїх сусідів. Я був цілком щасливий. Десь було біля десяти. Майже дві третіх.

Qualitative adverbs in both contrasted languages may be used in the comparative and superlative degrees. They are formed with the help of synthetic or analytical means. Synthetic means are suffixes -er, -est in English and -ше, -іше, -ній in Ukrainian. Unlike English, however, in Ukrainian prefixes are also used to form the superlative degree of qualitative adverbs (най-, щонай-, якнай-): найшвидше, найцікавіше,

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якнайшвидше, щонайменше, щонайбільше.

The analytical means include auxiliary words (adverbs, particles): more, most, still more, less, least, still less in English and their equivalent adverbs and particles in Ukrainian, eg: often, oftener/more often, of-tenest/most often, less often, still more/less often, more slowly, less/ least slowly, ясно, ясніше, найясніше, більш/менш ясно, найбільш/ найменш ясно; ясно — ще ясніше/трохи ясніше, набагато ясніше.

The suffix -ій/-чій is used to form the comparative degree of the adverbs хутко — хутчій, мерщій. Eg: А йди хутчій. (Л. Українка). Біжи мерщій додому.

A separate group in both languages constitute suppletive adverbs, whose grading is generally achieved by synthetic means, eg: well, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; far, further, furthest, etc. There are fewer of such adverbs in Ukrainian: добре, краще, найкраще; погано, гірше, найгірше; гарно, краще, найкраще.

A particular (allomorphic for English) feature of many Ukrainian qualitative adverbs is their ability to take diminutive suffixes (-еньк-, -есеньк-, -юсіньк-, -очк-, -ечк-) and become diminutive: гарно — гарненько — гарнесенько — гарнюсінько — гарнюньо; тоненько — тонюсінько; трохи — трішечки; рядочком, шнурочком, etc.

Note. Ukrainian adverbs are often characterised by a shifting stress that differs from that in the word the adverb is derived from. Cf. важний - валено, глибокий - глибоко, тонкий - тоненько, важкий -важко, смішний — смішно. But: завзятий — завзято, пихатий -пихато, день - вдень, etc.

Qualitative adverbs in both languages include large groups of adverbs of manner, quantity or degree, which have corresponding equivalents in Ukrainian, eg: aloud, how, aloof, upside down, by heart, in turn, one by one, almost, enough, entirely, rather, sufficiently, very — вголос, напам'ять, скоса, спросоння, догори дном, дуже, також, багато, більше, менше, ледве, надто, майже, etc. These adverbs express the degree of a quality of an adjective or adverb, or the intensity of an action expressed by a verb. Cf. less timid, very foggy, rather well; to read aloud, to read in turn менш боязкий, дуже туманна,

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читати вголос/по черзі, вчити напам'ять, добре знати.

The second large common group present adverbs denoting circumstances. They are :

1) adverbs of time: now, always, then, today, tomorrow, just, so far, sooner or later - зараз, тоді, завжди, сьогодні, взавтра, щойно, рано чи пізно. Here also belongs the negative adverb never that has other similar negative derivatives within adverbs of place (nowhere ніде) and adverbs of direction (nowhence нізвідки, nowhere/ nowhither нікуди); 2) adverbs of frequency/repetition of an action: always, daily, frequently, twice, usually - завжди, щоденно, часто, двічі, звичайно; 3) adverbs and adverbial phrases of place or direction of an action: here, there, inside, inwards, outside, somewhere, nowhere, to and fro, etc. тут, там, надворі, десь, ніде, туди й сюди, etc.; 4) a small group of adverbs in both contrasted languages is presented by those expressing cause and purpose. Eg.: rashly згарячу (Марків партнер палахнув ізгарячу в його з обріза. С. Васильченко); headlong спрожогу/прожогом: Петро спрожогу вибіг. (П. Мирний) Very few adverbs express also purpose, as for instance: purposely/intentionally, deliberately навмисне. Дерева, здавалось, навмисно заступають дорогу. (О. Донченко); ostentationally напоказ: Дами охали та пищали, кривлячи вуста та виставляючи напоказ які-то вони чулі та м'якого серця. (І. Франко).

An isomorphic feature is the existence in both languages of a large group of pronominal adverbs some of which are not available in English. Among these are: 1) interrogative and relative adverbs: where, when, why, how - де, куди, коли, звідки, чому, як, поки, доки; 2) demonstrative adverbs: there, here, then, so — там, тут, сюди, туди, тоді, так; 3) complementing adverbs: always, everywhere, sometimes, otherwise — завжди, всюди, інколи, по-всякому, по-іншому; 4) negative adverbs (more numerous in Ukrainian): nowhere, never - ніде, нізвідки, нікуди, ніяк, нізащо; 5) indefinite adverbs which are more numerous in Ukrainian as well: ever, somehow, somewhere, erewhile - десь, де-небудь, колись, коли-небудь, кудись, чомусь, казна-звідки, казна-коли, хтозна-де, казна-куди, etc.

Note. Completely allomorphic for English is the group of the so-called

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"personal pronouns" adverbs available only in Ukrainian. They are as follows: по-моєму, по-твоєму, по-нашому, по-вашому, по-наськи and the reflexive adverb по-своєму. Their lexical equivalents in English are adverbial phrases like "in my opinion/ in my judgement, in your opinion, etc."

Also not available in English are some adverbs of comparison and likening (означально-уподіблювальні) as соколом, стрілою, зозулею, по-батьківському, no-новому, no-осінньому, etc. These and other adverbs of the kind have in English for their equivalents adverbial phrases like in a fatherly way (по-батьковськи), like a falcon (соколом), in a new fashion (по-новому), etc.