С. Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка издание второе, ■исправленное и дополненное допущено Министерством просвещения СССР в качества учебник
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tea /ti:/—ioo /tu:/—tore /to:/
geese /gJ:z/—goose /gu:s/—gorge /дэ:аз/
*2. Read the pairs below. What variants of the alveolar /t, d, n, I1 should be used before /0, B/ which follow them?J
eight /eit/—eighth /ate/
that evening /löset vi:vmrj/—that theme /töset %6i:m/
write it /Yait it/—write this /'rait- vSis/
wide /waid/—width /wide/
read it /*ri:d it/—read this /iri:d J5is/
ten /ten/—tenth ДепЭ/
on my table /on mai ДехЫ/—on the table /on 9э »teibl/
heal /hi:l/—health /helB/
all his /to:t Jhiz/—all this /I3:l %Öis/
*3. What variants of the /r/ phoneme are used: a) when it is preceded by /0, 0/
in "three", "thread", "with Russian": b) when it is preceded by a voiceless
consonant in "shriek", "fry", "try", "free"; c) when it is followed by /з;,
u:/ in "roar", "room", "rule". й
*4. Read the pairs below. What variants of the consonants /d, g, 3/ are used before /w/?
a) dell /del/ — b) dwell /dwel/
luggage /UAgids/ — language /ilserjgwids/ gendarme /isa-ndam/— bourgeois /'buaswa/
c) read well /irl:d ^wel/—the bag which disappeared /бэ ibseg witf dis3,pi9d/
•5. Read the examples below. How are sonorants modified a) in the cluster* /pi, pr, tw, tr, kw, kl, кг/ before a stressed vowel? b) in the clusters /pj, tj, kj, H, fr, fj, 6r, 0), 6w, sw, si, sj, sm, sn/ before a stressed vowel?
a) lane /lern/ — plane /plem/
rise /raiz/ — price /prais/
. . ,, beware /bilwea/ — between /biitwim/
J52
■dry /drai/ wire /waia/ lean /lkn/ green /grim/
beauty /ibju:ti/
dune /dju:n/
you /ju:/
lie /lai/
rend /rend/
reviews /n'vju:z/
rise /raiz/
enumerate /iinju:m9reit/
way /wei/
leep /H:p/
mute /raju:t/
mile /mail/
know /пэи/
try /trai/ quire ik clean /klhn/ cream /kri:m/
pupil /ipjurpl/
brie /tju:n/
queue /kju:/
fly /Hai/
friend /trend/
refuse /n'fju:z/
thrice /8rais/
enthusiasm /m'Ojuizisezm/
sway /swei/
sleep /sli:p/
suit /sju:t/
smile /small/
snow /srau/
Explain the mechanisms of a) the orally exploded variants of /p, b, t, d, k, g/ in the left column; b) the nasally exploded variants of /p, b, t, d, k, g/ followed by /m, n/ in the right column.
help us Ahelp as/ departing /di'patirj/ don't ask /idsunt %ask/ darker /'dctkg/ ask us /4o:sk as/
help me Ahelp mi/ department /di'patmsnt/ don't know /idaunt vnsu/ darkness /idakms/ ask me Да-sk mi/
7. Explain the mechanism of the laterally expl ded variants of the It, d/ phonemes followed by HI in:
little /Hi«/ middle /imidl/
- that lesson /'Sset Jesn/
- good luck /igud к1лк/
*S. 5tate what cases of assimilation can be observed in rapid, colloquial stylt in the examples below.
a) bright blue
. dart board
whitewash
b) third part
head boy
red meat
hard work
■d) hard cash head gird
«) in Cardiff sunglasses
- Christmas shopping
- get your coat
I heard you come in bless you close your books .. .won't you? ...couldn't you? ...shouldn't you? .. .can't you? h) in the corner all the books what's the point? where's the breadknife?
153-
*9. Transcribe and read the examples below, observe the elision of /t, d/ pie-ceded by a) fricatives, b) stops, c) nasals.
- cleft palate c) slammed the door
waste paper hair-brained scheme
crushed strawberries stringed musical instrument
bathed the baby
- trapped by
cracked pots
dubbed film
bugged telephone
enriched foodstuffs
ridged surface
dived below
closed doors
breathed deeply
10. Transcribe the words below. Single out the vowels that may be elided in
these words.
nursery temporary reasonable
petitioner phonetically parliament
policeman potato buffalo
difficult preference government
banana secretary bachelor
boundary Edinburgh naturally
several especially awfully
suppose carefully comfortable
history ' possibly machine
perhaps suffering interesting
11. Transcribe the words below. Single out the consonants that may be elided
in these words.
handbag humpty-dumpty landscape
postman attempt sanctuary
a sixth round empty next stop
last Saturday night time lamb
next time crumbs punctual
12. Give examples of historically established elision in words with the clus
ters Im, kn, gn, mb, mn,'Jk/.
Control Tasks
1. Read the words, observe fhe stronger aspiration of/p, t, k/ before long vow
els and diphthongs. Compare with the Russian /п, т, к/ pronounced with
out aspiration.
port tar car порт
Pete table cable торт
power tower cow кот
pit tip cat nap
2. Describe the difference In the transition from /p/ to Ы in the words "port"
and "spot".
154
3. Read the pairs of words, describe the mechanism of voiceless fortis, voiced
lenis difference, which is functional here.
plight—blight try —dry crate —great found — bound tune—dune piece —bees penny—Benny park—bark twelve—dwell
- Describe the mechanism of the articiilatory difference between the /e/ in
"hen", "hell" and between the tml in "tool", "tune".
- Read the word combinations below. Observe and explain the mechanism of
articulation of two plosionless stops.
help Peter — сноп пшеницы club building— клуб был полон at times — оттуда good day — под домом black coffee — как когда
- What mechanism is affected by assimilation in the pronunciation of /r/ in
the words "string", "strike", of /m/ in the words "smell", "smoke" or 1)1 in
the words "student", "suit"?
- Explain the mechanism of /k/ to /ö/ transition in the combination "like
that". What mistake can be made by the Russian students in the articula
tion of /кЭ/?
- Pronounce the words and word combination. Underline the sounds affected
by assimilation, describe its type.
breadth, wealth, at that, afraid, apron, thrive
9. Pronounce the words correctly, underline the two plosives, explain the ar-
ticulatory difference in the CG transition in English and in Russian.
apt —аптека helped—обточка fact—факт
shopkeeper—шапка begged—когда
*10. Arrange these English and Russian words under the headings: (I) aspiration, no aspiration; (2) palatalization a) loose CV transition, b) close CV transition; (3) labialization, labialization with the lip protrusion.
top, bee, pit, built, port, meal, cope, deep, beauty, tarn, corn, music, pepper, onion, peace, come, lean, car, cable, lion, dean, топь, поле, тина, Коля, тесто, роль, сила, лом, ток, день, пень, соль, ряд, пел, рёв, бук, кило, мел, вилы, полк, ком, дуло, coop, tool, tall, call, gorge, goose, doom, dawn, room, thorn
*11. Arrange these words under the headings: (1) lateral plosion, (2) nasal plosion, (3) loss of plosion (two plosionless stops).
actor, curdled, muddle, needless, mottled, Britain, begged, oughtn't, at last, what kind, admit, back to back, madness, witness, big books, partner, slept, cotton, great number, sudden, captain, top coat, red light, black goat, ripe cheese, huddle, at night, good looks
*12. Explain how assimilation affects the place of articulation in the vowels, /ta:—ka:, ki:—ka-, ku:l—ki:n, jes—ipju'.te, 1:1—ki:p/
155
*13. Transcribe these words and word combinations. Read them. Explain possible mistakes in the close CC transition.
anecdote, birthday, blackboard, medicine, this book, let's go, what's the time, sixth, his thing, pass them, is that, fifths, Smith's there, soothes them, in the
- Give your own examples and explain the difference between the English
and Russian articuiatory transitions in cases of (1) aspiration, (2) pala
talization, (3) labialization.
- Give your own examples and explain the difference between the English
and Russian articulatory transitions in cases of assimilation affecting (1>
the work of the vocal cords, (2) the place of articulation and the active
organ of speech, (3) the manner of noise production, (4) the position of
the soft palate.
- Give your own examples and explain the difference between the English
and Russian articulatory transitions in cases of the (1) nasal plosion, (2)
lateral plosion, (3) loss of plosion.
J7. Give your own examples to illustrate rf'fferent cases of elision.
^ V. ENGLISH PHONEMES IN WRITING
Language performs its function as a means.of intercommunication not only in oral but also in written form. Therefore it is important to establish the relationship between orthography and pronunciation, that is letters and sounds, which represent them.
English dictionaries usually indicate the pronunciation of each individual word, because the English spelling system is very difficult. This is because 1) it represents two different languages, one of Romance and the other of Teutonic origin; 2) the English spelling has remained essentially the same since the days of Caxton * and the-other early printers. As a result of this 60 symbols are used to represent vowels and diphthongs and 44 symbols are used to represent consonants in the written language. These symbols are separate letters-or combinations of letters, which correspond to vowel and consonant phonemes. They are called graphemes. Graphemic symbols are included into angle brackets.
Graphemes for the system of vowels are the following:
a, e, i, y, o, u oa, oe, oi, oy, oo, ou, ow, oe
ar, er, ir, yr, or, ur ue, ui, uy
aa, ae, ai, ay, au, aw, эе aer, air, ayr
ea, ее, ei, ey, eu, ew ear, eer, eir, eyr, eur, e\v(e)r
te, ye iar, ier, yer
oar, oor, our, ow{e)r, uer igh, aigh, eigh, ough
Graphemes for the system of consonants are the following:
b, c, ch, d, dg, f, g, gh, gn, gu, h, j, k, 1, m, n, ng, p, ph, q, qu, r, s, sc, sch, sh, si, ssi, sei, ti, ci, ce, t, tch, th, u, v, w, wh, x, xcT У, z, zi
There are very few sounds which have one-to-one graphemic reference, e. g.
As a rule, one grapheme has many phonemic references, e. g;
—э banana —o: thought
—ei baby —u: through
—ae back
— a: bask —э borough
—э: ball
—d wash
Graphemes may be simple (a) and complex (ough).
A grapheme, which consists of one letter, corresponding to one phoneme is called a monograph; two-, three- and four-letter graphemes, which correspond to one phoneme are called "digraph", "trigraph'" and "polygraph" — accordingly, e. g. (a), are monographs, {ng),,
Caxton W. (1422-91) — the first English printer.157
book, cook, look, shook, took
good, hood
bull, bullet, bullock, bully, full, pull
bush, cushion, push
could, should, would
However: bosom, wolf, woman.
If we analyse a word from the viewpoint of orthographic —■ phonemic and graphemic reference, the discrepancy between them will be almost universal. For example, the word stretch consists oi:
5 phonemes /s/ ^ HI /r/ /e/ /tf/
5 graphemes s — t — r — e — tch
7 letters s — t — r — e — t — с — h
The word mouth consists oi:
3 phonemes /m/ /au/ /0/ 3 graphemes m — ou — th , 5 letters m — о — u — t — h
From the phonological point of view, a grapheme has a considerable number of allophonic references, due to the complementary distribution or free variation, in which a phoneme occurs. For example, ■the grapheme
Morphemic reference of graphemes is many-sided. Any graphic -difference must be considered as having an independent morphemic reference. E. g.
boys /bolz/ — boys' /bolz/ —boy's /b?lz/
s, s*( 'shave different morphemic reference: s indicates the plural 'form*, s' indicates the plural form, possessive case; 's indicates the possessive case of the singular form.
The knowledge of orthography is very important because changes in orthography are much slower than changes in phonology. Therefore there are a large number of rules of reading in modern English. Given below is a simplified table of some grapheme-phoneme correspondences, illustrated by typical contexts.
In "Phonemic references" only vowel phonemes are singled out to revise their spelling correspondences.
J58
Table
| Graphemes | Phonemic references | Examples |
| a a a ae ai au, aw ey ar are, air all aim wa, qua a af, am, ance, mand, ant, ask, asp, ass, ast, ath | /a/ /ei/ /ei/ Ы /ei/ /CK/ M M M M w | fat fate fast anaemic wait, daisy cautious, law, hawk day far fare, fair tall, all calm, palm watt, squash China, semolina after, craft, draft; drama, example; chance, dance; command, demand; chant, grant; ask, task; grasp, gasp; brass, class; fast, cast, bath, father |
| e ea ее eigh, ey ew eu er ear, eer | /e/ M 14 /«/ M /Jo/ /a:/ /1Э/ /»/ /«:/ | bed, setting heading, meadow heed, meet weight, whey, they blew, shew euphemism, feudal reverse, serve hammer hear, beer, gear, dear bear, tear, pear earth, dearth |
| i i ia ie ir ier ' ire | A/ /1'/ /аю/ /1Э/ /t/ /ai/ /«/ /»/ /аи/ | it, bitter police, marine dial, diary India, Sylvia relief, thief tie, pie birth, sir, whirl easier fire, mire |
Orthography helps to differentiate homophones, e, g.
sight /sart/ — зрение; вид
cite /sait/ — ссылаться, приводить, цитировать
site /sait/ — местоположение
There are also cases when words coincide in their plural and singular forms so far as the spelling and pronunciation are concerned. They may be distinguished only by the abbreviated forms, e. g. species /'spi:Ji:z/ (вид, порода): the singular and plural of this word!
159>
are pronounced alike. The abbreviation sp stands for the singular and spp stands for the plural.
Graphemes in the English language may indicate the phonemic reference of a preceding, or the following grapheme. They perform diacritic function. E. g.
1. The doubling of consonants:
(a) indicates the shortness of the preceding vowel jmd differenti
ates the meaning of words:
planed — planned noted — knotted
(b) differentiates the meaning of words:
assent—a cent appear—a pier arrival—a rival occur—a cure
(c) lengthens the preceding vowel:
barred, stirred, furred
2. The use of a "mute" e or r:
(a) indicates'the alphabetical reading of the preceding vowel and
performs differentiatory functions:
rat — rate pet — Pete fin — fine
(b) differentiates homophones:
born—borne pleas—please step—steppe do /deu/1—doe
(c) indicates the lengthening, or the diphthongal nature of a preced-
üng vowel:
are toe awe pore mere were due cure fury sire
There are two*notions in phonological literature which reflect the -connection of orthography with syllables and morphemes: (a) syllabo-•graph and (b_)morphograph. The parts of a word which represent syllables graphically are called syllabographs. They may consist of a •vowel, or a combination of vowels and consonants which corresponds to a syllable or syllables within the graphic norms of the analysed word, e. g.
^ Words Syllabographs
higher high-er
barring Ъаг-ring
bankrupt bank-rupt
refinement re-fine-ment
1 rt is a noun denoting a musical note, but not the verb do, 160
A morphograph is that part of a word which represents a morpheme graphically, e.j-g. the suffix -ing is a morphograph in the word singing; the suffix -ed is a morphograph in the word long-legged, etc,
Sounds are indicated in writing by means of transcription. It is especially useful in studying English, where the interpretation of the orthography can be complicated and misleading.
Transcription is quite indispensable in transliteration of names of persons, geographical names, magazines, names of ships, etc. Transliteration is writing a word, or words, of one language in the letters of some other language.
Transliteration differs from transcription: it is simpler and may use additional symbols. E. g. ^ Bath is transcribed as /ba0/ but transliterated as 5am (the length of /a/ and the sound /6/ are ignored).
Given below is a list of Russian equivalents for English letters and letter combinations and phonetic renderings.
^ English Russian
English
Russian
| a | —а, ей, и, о, э, эй | 1 | —л; иногда не передает- |
| ae | —а, у, э, и, ии | | ся |
| ai | —ей, эй | га | —м |
| au | —ау, о, оу, оо | п | —н |
| aw | — 0, 00 | ng | —нг |
| ay | —ей, и, эй | 0 | —о, у, э, а, оу |
| b | —б; иногда не пере- | оа | —о, оу |
| | дается | ое | —о, у, оу |
| с | —-к, с, ш | 00 | —а, о, у, уу |
| ch | —к, х, ч, ш | 0U | —а, ау, оу, у |
| d | __д | ough—аф | |
| e | —е, и, э; иногда не | 0W | —ау, оу |
| | передается | р | —п; иногда не пере- |
| ea | —е, и, ии | | дается |
| ее | —и, ии | ph | -ф |
| ei | —ей, и, эй, ии | q | _...„ .ту- |
| eigh | —и, эй, аи | г | —Р |
| eo | — е, ии | S | —ж, с, ш |
| eu | —ю, ью | sh | —ш |
| ew | —ю, ью | t | —т |
| ey | —ей, и, эй | u | —а, е, у, ю; иногда не |
| f | -ф | | передается |
| g | —г, дж, ж; иногда не | ui | —и, у |
| | передается | ur | —ер, эр |
| gg | — гг, ггк | V | —в |
| h | —х; иногда не пере- | w | —в, у; иногда не пере- |
| | дается | | дается |
| i | —аЙ, е, и, э | wor | ' —Уэр |
| ia | —айа, иа, ия | X | — ГЗ, 3, КС |
| ie | — айе, и, ии | У | —аи, у, и, й |
| io | —айо, ио | z | |