С. Ф. Леонтьева Теоретическая фонетика английского языка издание второе, ■исправленное и дополненное допущено Министерством просвещения СССР в качества учебник
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01
12Fig. 13
The opening between the jaws is wide for the nucleus and much narrower for the glide.
To practise the /au/ articulation, the following exercises are recommended:
| cow | gown | howl |
| now | bow | house |
| town | row | mouth |
| down | loud | allow |
mice—mouse lied—loud
lice—louse night—now
shy—shout gye—gout
die—doubt rye—rout
I—owl thy—thou
Graphic Equivalents of the /au/ Diphthong /au/ is pronounced when spelt:
ou house /haus/ —дом
otigh plough /plau/— пахать
ow how /hau/ —как
No. 17 /:i/
prop^6 ПА' 7 ^АМЬ0Щ^Э1/ is & which is ndther No- 6 M S'hlanri Ы ть fThe Р08,и]оп of the bulk of ^e tongue is be-TZ direction ÄtOng-Uf'gHfdeS ?,cm the back and low position glide ТЫ?fmbmL^J^lUOvI°l N* ,П(~се83агУ to accomplish the
122
Definition: /01/ is a closing diphtnong with the back, low (narrow variation) slightly rounded nucleus (Fig. 13).
To practise the /oi/ articulation the following exercises are recommended:
oil voice avoid coil join spoil boy toy destroy
boy —bay foil —fail point—paint doily—daily hoist—haste soil —sail
Graphic Equivalents of the /oi/ Diphthong
/di/ is pronounced when spelt:
oi point /pomt/—пункт, точка, boil /boil/—кипеть, coin /kom/ —
монета °У boy /boi/—мальчик, joy /d3Di/~ радость
Centring Diphthongs1
No. 18 /ia/
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The nucleus of this diphthong is vowel No. 2 /i/. The bulk of the tongue moves from the /i/ position to the position, which it occupies in the /э/ articulation, the full formation of it is fully accomplished.
Definition: /ia/ is a centring diphthong with the high (broad variation of the high position of the tongue) front-retracted unrounded nucleus. When /la/ occurs in an open syllable and is followed by a pause, the glide sounds like the vowel /л/. The lips are neutral.
To practise the Лэ/ articulation the follow
ing exercises are recommended: Fig. И
ear, hear, year, dear, near, clear, engineer, really
he —hear me —mere fee —fear tea—tear bead—beard she—sheer be—beer we —weir pea—peer
Graphic Equivalents of the /ia/ Diphthong
/ю/ is pronounced when spelt:
er here /hra/—-здесь eer beer /bia/—пиво
l
The term "centring" is connected with the glide /э/, which is considered to be central. In this book it is referred to as mixed. In Gleason's transcription they are represented as /ih/, /eh/, /oh/, /uh/.123
ier pier /pia/—набережная ir fakir Дэ'кю, 'fakia/—факир ear year /jis, ja:/—год ea before other consonants:
real /ml/—настоящий e before unaccented a, u: idea /aildia/—идея, geum
-бот. гравилат
No. 19 /еэ/
The bulk of the tongue starts from the position intermediate between vowels No. 3 /e/ and No. 4 /se/, then it glides to articulate /9/, the full formation of which is not accomplished. The
| \\ | |
| | 1/ |
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Fig. IB Fig. 16
nucleus of /еэ/ is more open than the English /e/ or the Russian /э/ in amo. The lips are spread .or neutral.
Definition: /еэ/ is a centring diphthong with the front, mid-open -(broad, variation of the medium position of the tongue), unrounded nucleus (Fig. 15).
To practise the /еэ/ articulation the following exercises are re-commendedr-
chair ware" hair
care square fair
their mare' pair
dare fare declare
far—fare' mar—mare car—care bar*— bare char^-chair tar—tare
Graphic Equivalents of the /еэ/ Diphthong
/еэ/ is pronounced when spelt:
a before r; care /кед/—забота
ai s> air /еэ/—воздух
e » there /Эеэ/—там
ei » their /5еэ/—их, свой
ea » tear Деэ/—раздирать, рвать
ае » aerate /'еэге^, 'eiareit/—проветривать
ay before or: mayor /теэ/~мэр
124
No. 20 /иэ/
The nucleus of the phoneme /иэ/ is a high back-advanced /u/, which gradually glides to /э/.
Definition: /иэ/ is a centring diphthong with the back-advanced,, high (broad variation of the high position of the tongue), slightly rounded, short and lax nucleus (Fig. 16).
Care should be taken not to confuse the diphthong /иэ/ with /u.*/„ To avoid this mistake the following exercise is recommended:
shoe—sure pool—poor crew—cruel two —tour do —doer grew—gruel
Graphic Equivalents of the /иэ/ Diphthong
/иэ/ is pronounced when spelt:
oo before r: poor /риз/—бедный oe » doer /dua/—деятель ou » tourist /ituanst/—турист u » sure /Jua/—уверенный
It is pronounced in the words: steward /'stjusd/—управляющий, sewer /sju9/—сточная труба
The phoneme /т>э/ which is represented in spelling by -oor, -ore,. e. g. door, more is not obligatory, it is considered to be a free variant of the phoneme /э:/. It is not included in the inventory of vowels.
^ SUBSIDIARY VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH VOWEL PHONEMES
a) Unchecked and Checked Vowels
Allophonic differences in the vowel system of the English language are conditioned by their distributional characteristics. All of them may occur in initial position»
/i:/ economy /a:/ arc /u:/ Uganda /ei/ eight /ia/ earshot
/i/ image /v/ on /л/' utter /ai/ idea /еэ/ airway
/e/ editor /o:/ all /э:/ earn /au/ hour /иэ/ Urdu!
/ae/ acid /u/ Uruguay /э/ about /oi/ oily /эй/ over
In initial position the vowel is more or less free from the influence of the next consonant phoneme.
Vowels may be nasalized, (a) more — if they precede the'nasal sound and (b) less — when they follow it.
(a) tfia pen hsem b) mi: nset msep
kin ten bom meed nest b
Low vowels are more affected by nasal consonants than mid and high vowels.
125
| noon | nine |
| noodle | neat |
| moon | clean |
| mar | mean |
| farm | fine |
Allophonic differences in the vowel system are mostly in quantity, or length. The quantity of vowels depends on the following factors:
- position of a vowel in a word: (1) free; (2) terminated by a
■voiced, or a voiceless consonant;
- position of a vowel in relation to word stress;
- position of a vowel in relation to sentence stress and rhythm;
- there are extralinguistic factors that may affect the length of
■vowels. They are connected with emotional characteristics. For exam
ple, if we compare similar vowels in the following sentences we may
«observe quantitative dependence of vowels on the emotional colour
ing.
The 'Man o? »Property, by iJohn 4Gabworthy (title) "A "Forsyte," reiplied iyoung ,Jolyon, "is 'not an uncommon animal..."
/o:/ in the word Forsyte is longer than /d:/ in the word oats-worthy.
Connection of a vowel with word stress is another characteristic ifeature, peculiar to the English language. A vowel in unstressed position may change not only its quantity but it undergoes qualitative -changes, which may result not only in its reduction but in the occurrence of the neutral vowel /э/.
It should be borne in mind that unstressed vowels in English jnay preserve their quantity. They may be fully long: emission ,/k'mifn/, orchestral /о:'kestrel/, etc.
This is never the case with the Russian language, where all unstressed vowels are reduced, according to their position in the word.
For example, the Russian /a, o/ are reduced to /л/ in the first jpretonic syllable and to /ъ/ in other unaccented syllables: с/л/сна, д/л/ры, гол/ъ/ву, стор/ъ/ну, з/ъ/ горой.
The Russian /e/ is pronounced as /ыг/ after /ж, ш/ in the first pretonic syllable: ж/ые/на, ж/ые/вать. In other pretonic syllables ,/e/ is pronounced as /ъ/: ж/ъ/лтизна.
The Russian /a/ is pronounced as /не/ after the soft /ч, ш/ in •the first pretpnic syllable: ч/ие/сы.
The Russian /e/ is pronounced as /э/ after soft consonants in posttonic position: вын/э/су, оч/э/редь.
The quality oE English vowels of full formation is very stable and definite
Articmatory differences of vowel phonemes depend on (1) the place ■of articulation of the adjacent consonant and on (2) the active organ of speech of the adjacent consonant,
^ 126
"Contextual" and Idiolectal Variants of English Voxels.ar.d Monophthongs in Terms of CV, VC Relations
n-i
The phoneme /k/ may occur in initial and in terminal positions: epoch /ii:puk/, tea /ti:/.
/i:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: pee, be, we
Iabio-dental: feet, veal lingual, forelingual
dental, interdental: theme, the
alveolar: tea, deal, sea, zeal, lee, neat palato-alveolar: she, cheese
post-alveolar, cacuminal: read lingual, medio-Hngual: yield lingual, backlingual: key pharyngal (glottal): he
Iv.l is followed by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: leap, seem
Iabio-dental: leaf lingual, forelingual
dental, interdental: sheath, breathe
alveolar: eat, deed, spleen
palato-alveolar: leash, each
lingual, backlingual: teak, league
It may be diphthongized in open syllables and before lenis and nasal consonants, See above.
Before dark [I] a centring glide may be heard.
RP speakers try to avoid any glide in /i;/ pronunciation as "vulgar". Wide diphthongs are typical of Cockney, Birmingham, Southern USA and other low prestige dialects.
N
The phoneme /i/ occurs in initial and in terminal position». It never occurs finally in a stressed open syllable: enough д1плг/г pity /
hi varies with /э/ in unstressed syllables, e. g. helpless, remove. In words with prefixes pre, de, re III is, pronounced, if the prefix i& used to convert a word into a new form, e. g. modify — premcdifyY contaminate — decontaminate, /э/ instead of /i/ tends to be the dominant form, see the latest edition of the English pronouncing dictionary,
hi is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: pit, wit
labio-dental: fit, vie lingual, forelingual, apical
127
dental, interdental: thin, this
alveolar: tin, din, knit
palato-alveolar: sftip, chin
post-alveolar, cacuminal: rid
lingual, medio-Iingual: yin, yill
lingual, backlingual: kin, give pharyngal: hit
Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: lip, nib
labio-dental: if, live lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: myth
alveolar: it, did, this
palato-alveolar: fish, ridge
lingual, backlingual: pick, big
Final /i/ in modern RP is considerably closer. In Yorkshire and Lancashire a very open vowel, almost like /e/ is found finally, e. g. Ялпе/. /i/ is centralized and lowered before dark lit, e. g. still, silk.
In modern RP /i/ is lower and more centralized than in more old-fashioned speech.
/e/
The phoneme /e/ may occur in initial position, but it never occurs terminally.
/el is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: pet, bet
labio-dental: fence, vest äingual, forelingual, apical
alveolar: ten, dead
palato-alveolar: shelf, chest
post-alveolar, cacuminal: rest
lingual, medio-lingual: yes
lingual, backlingual: kept pharyngal (glottal): help
Id is followed by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: step, ebb
labio-dental: chef lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: death
alveolar: ate, dead, less
palato-alveolar: fresh, fetch lingual, backlingual: wreck, beg
Some speakers have a more central quality, sometimes with a final /a/ glide.
/e/ is lowered and centralized before dark [II, e, g. tell, felt. Id is closer before velars, e. g. peg, peck.
128
The phoneme /ae/ may occur in initial position but it never occurs terminally.
/se/ is longer before Ienis and nasals in: bag, mad, man, sad, bad, that (the only example before a fortis).
Sometimes /se/ has a pharyngal constriction — creaky voice quality.
In affected RP some speakers pronounce ^ Ы with a following /a/ element — diphthongization.
/se/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: pat, bad
Iabio-dental: fan lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: thank, that
alveolar: tan, dad
palato-alveolar: shall, jam
post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran
lingual, medio-Iingual: Yankee
lingual, backlingual: cat pharyngal (glottal): ham
Ы is followed by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: clap, cab
labio-dental: have lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental; hath
alveolar: hat, dad
palato-alveolar: smash, badge
lingual, backlingual: back, bag, sang
A very open /se/ is heard from young speakers.
M
The phoneme /a/ may occur in initial and in terminal positioni army /lami/, far /fa/,
/a/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: palm, bar
labio-dental: far, vast lingual, forelingual, apical
alveolar: tar, lark
palato-alveolar: shaft, chance, jar
post-alveolar, cacuminal: raft
lingual, medio-lingual; yard
lingual, backlingual: car, garden pharyngal (glottal): harm
/a:/ is followed by consonants characterized ass labial
5-182 I29
bilabial: harp
labiodental: starve lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, Interdental: health
alveolar: heart, hard
palato-alveolar: marsh, targe
lingual, backlmgual: bark
A very back quality of Ы is typical of old-fashioned speech or affected forms.
N
The phoneme hi may occur in initial position but it never occurs in terminal position. The lip rounding is very slight.
hi is preceded by consonants characterized as; labial
bilabial: pot, box
Iabio-dental: fox, fog lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: thong
alveolar: top, dog, sock
palato-alveolar: chop, fob
post-alveolar, cacuminal; rob
lingual, medio-Hngual: yonder
lingual, backlingual: cot, got pharyngal (glottal): hot
/d/ is followed by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: hop, mob
1 abio-dental: off, of lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: moth
alveolar: hot, old, was
palato-alveolar: wash
lingual, backlingual: lock, fog, wrong
M
The phoneme /o:/ may occur in initial and in terminal position: orbit /b:bit/, saw /so:/.
/э:/ is preceded by consonants characterized as: labial
bilabial: port, bought, war
Iabio-dental: for lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: thorn
alveolar: talk, door, saw
palato-alveolar: shore, jaw
post-alveolar, cacuminal: raw
lingual, medio-lingual: your
130
lingual, backlingual: core pharyngal (glottal): horn
/x/ may be followed by consonants characterized as; labial
bilabial: orb
1 abio-dental: cough Singual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: north
alveolar: ought, pause
palato-alveolar: scorch, gorge
Hngual, backlingual: fork
Some speakers pronounce /ээ/ in words with ore, e.g. sore /sds/. It is heard in old-fashioned RP and prevails in dialects.
p:l may be pronounced instead of /иэ/ in: sure /Jo:/, you're /jo:/, poor /po.7. More open varieties of [oil characterize old-fashioned Beech.
/A/
The phoneme /л/ occurs in initial position, but it never occurs terminally. It is the shortest of the checked vowels.
/л/ may be preceded by consonants: labial
bilabial: but, worry
labio-dental: fuss, bulgar lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: thunder, thus
alveolar: tub, duck
palato-alveolar: shut, just
post-alveolar, cacuminal: ran
lingual, medio-lingual: young
lingual, backlingual: cut pharyngal (glottal): hut
/л! may be followed J3y the following consonants: labial
bilabial: up, tub
labio-dental: rough, love lingual, forelingual, apical
dental, interdental: doth
alveolar: bud, but
palato-alveolar: rush, judge
lingual, backlingual: duck, bug, young
/л/ is retractedjbeforejiark Ш, e.g. dull.