І. В. Корунець порівняльна типологія англійської та української мов навчальний посібник Видання друге, доповнене й перероблене вінниця нова книга

Agglutination is also a productive means of compounding (especially in English) where different parts of speech may be formed in this way — nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, eg: chimney-sweep, money-order, long-away, knee-deep, present-day, short-sighted, broad-minded, long-range, hi-jack, to April-fool, goose-step, cross-examine, plate-rack, sideways, etc. Or in Ukrainian: бурят-монгол, дизель-генератор, двійка-байдарка, шафа-холодильник, кахи-кахи, тиць-миць, човг-човг, сяк-так, хоч-не-хоч, etc. Highly productive in English is also the agglutination with the help of prepositions, eg: stick-ш-the-mud, commander-in-chief, matter-of-fact, up-to-date, etc.

Agglutination of predicative units is observed in both languages though more common it is still in the English language, eg: pick-me-up, forget-me-not, merry-go-round, push-me-pull-me, Gradgrind, Mr. Know-All, etc. (cf. Ukrainian family names as Куйбіда, Неїжмак, Незовибатько, Непийвода, Підкуймуха, Убийвовк, etc.). Only in English, however, there is observed agglutination of abbreviated parts with root nouns like A-bomb, H-bag (handbag), Xmas, X-ray, etc.

Inflexional morphemes in the contrasted languages are also mostly agglutinated to the root or to the stem like other affixal morphemes. Cf. in English nouns: arms, armies, children; in adjectives: longer, longest; in pronouns: hers, mine; in numerals: fifth, second, first; in verbs: does., puts, crept, working; in participles: reading, listening, known, taken. Similarly in Ukrainian: брати/косарі дерева, дівчата; зелений (зелена, зелене, зелені), батьків, батьковим; п'ята (п'ятий, п'яте, п'яті), п'ятого; ваша (вашій, ваше, ваші), вашого; маю, матиму, матимемо; шитий (шита, шите, шиті), шитого... Sometimes, as has already been shown, a word may consist of a regular chain of preposed and post-posed affixal (including inflexional) morphemes (cf. redistributions, недовимолочування).

Apart from outer morphemes that are agglutinated, i.e. mechanically added to the root or stem, both languages have internal interchanges or alterations. The latter are regular correlations which may involve, as has been shown above, vowel alterations, eg: bring - brought, know -knew, take - took, shake - shook; рости - ріс; нести - ношу -ніс; вести - відвів - водив; гребти - гріб.

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Exclusively Ukrainian are the sound alterations which appear as a result of declension. Cf. ти-тебе-тобі-тобою; ви-вас-вам-вами, etc; Львів~у Львові, ніч-ночі, річ-речі, etc.

Suppletivity. As a means of grammatical expression suppletivity is observed in words, word-forms and morphemes of all Indo-European languages [20, 170]. At the lexical level it helps express, both in English and Ukrainian, sex distinctions, eg: boy -- girl, bull - cow, man - woman, cock — hen, хлопець — дівчина, чоловік — жінка, півень — курка, etc. Of suppletive nature are most of nouns forming the LSG denoting kinship. Cf. father - mother, brother - sister, son - daughter, aunt -uncle; батько - мати, брат - сестра, син - дочка, дядько -тітка, зять - невістка, дід - баба, etc.

In the system of lexico-grammatical classes of words suppletivity can express in English and Ukrainian different categorial meanings of notionals at the lexical level as in the pairs of verbs cany — bring, say — tell, take - give; брати - взяти, ловити ~ піймати. Suppletive forms of a verb paradigm can be used in English and Ukrainian to express some morphological categories. The most striking in this respect is the verb "to be" which has more forms to express different categorial meanings in English than in Ukrainian. Thus, in English "am, is, are — was, were" which are respectively the corresponding forms for tense (the Present and Past Indefinite), for number (singular or plural) and for person am. was for the first person singular, is/was for the third person singular and are/were for plural forms respectively.

The Ukrainian verb "бути" possesses only one suppletive form in present tense — "є", which is used for all persons in singular and plural (cf. я є, ти є, ми є, всі є, кожен є). But: Я був, ти була, ви буди, etc.

As to the suppletive forms of other notionals, they are of form-building, i. e. of categorial nature expressing in the contrasted languages degrees of comparison in some qualitative adjectives and adverbs. Cf. good — better — best, bad — worse — worst and little — less — least. In Ukrainian: добрий — кращий — найкращий, добрий - ліпший -найліпший, поганий — гірший — найгірший. In Ukrainian two more adjectives have suppletive forms in the comparative and suppletive degrees: гарний — кращий — найкращий; великий — більший — найбільший.


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Common in English and Ukrainian are also almost all qualitative adverbs with the suppletive forms in the comparative and superlative degrees: well — better — best; badly — worse — worst; little — less — least; добре — краще — найкраще; погано — гірше — найгірше; зле — гірше — найгірше; гарно — краще — найкраще.

Suppletivity of pronouns finds its expression and realisation in English and Ukrainian at different levels: a) at the level of the lexico-grammatical class of words as a whole (pronouns are regular signs of signs, i. e. representation nouns): Pete, lion, tiger-he, fox, ship-she; дім, лис, хліб-він; життя, поле-воно; люди-вони; b) at the level of paradigmatic word forms: I — me, he — him, she — her, we — us; я — мене, воно — його, він — його, ми — нас, вони — їх, etc. c) at the level of different case forms of pronouns (cf. the objective and possessive case forms: me, him, her, us, them; his, hers, ours, yours). These forms are more numerous in Ukrainian where all pronouns are declinable: я — мене, мені, мною; він — його, йому, ним, на ньому, вона — її -нею; ми — нам — нами; що — чого — чому — чим, ніщо — нічого — нічим, etc.

Some common systemic relations can be observed in the suppletive forms of the possessive pronouns in the contrasted languages as well. In Ukrainian the pronouns' paradigm is much richer, since there exist separate forms to express different numbers and genders. Cf. я, мене, мій, моя, моє, мої; вона, нею, її, воно, його, ним; ми, наш, наша, нашої, нашій; вони, їхній, їхня, їхнє, їхнього, etc. In English, however, there exist possessive absolute suppletive forms of pronouns, which are absolutely unknown in Ukrainian (mine, hers, yours, ours, theirs). Ukrainian, on the other hand, has fully and partly and suppletive forms of some interrogative and indefinite pronouns, which are not available in English хто — кого, кому, килі; що — чого, чому, чим; хтось — когось, комусь, кимсь. They also retain their suppletive forms in compound pronouns used in different case forms: хто-небудь — кого-небудь, кому-небудь, ким-небудь; що-небудь, чого-небудь, чому-небудь, чим-небудь. Least represented at the word form/morphological level in both languages are suppletive forms of numerals, there being only two ordinal numerals of the kind in English (one — the first, two — the second) and only one in Ukrainian (один — перший), whereas all simple


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numerals (digits) are suppletive in both languages. Cf. one — two, three — four, five — six, seven — eight, nine — ten. Similarly in Ukrainian: один — два, три — чотири, п'ять — шість, сім — вісім, etc.

Typology of the Parts of Speech in the Contrasted Languages

The identification of the parts of speech in the contrasted languages is not always an easy matter though the main subdivision of words into notionals and functionals seems to be indisputable. The ambiguity of form and meaning of many English notional words, however, brought some grammarians to the assumption that there exist no proper grounds and justification for singling out some notional parts of speech in present-day English. C. Fries [41, 94 — 100], for example, suggested a purely functional approach to the classification of English words. He singled out class 1 words (those performing the function of the subject), class 2 words (those performing the function of the predicate), class 3. words (adjectivals), i. e. attributives, and class 4 are were in Fries' classification adverbial function words or word-groups. C. Fries tried to avoid even mentioning the usual term of "parts of speech". The term is also avoided by this grammarian in his classification of "function words", which are allotted to 15 different groups and include also some pronouns, adverbs and verbs.

A typologically more relevant classification has been suggested for English notionals by C. T. Hockett who distinguishes in English "parts of speech" and "classes of words". Among the notionals three pure "classes of words" (or regular parts of speech) are distinguished: "class N words", "class V words" and "class A words". [43, 226 — 227] These "classes" are mainly singled out with regard to the morphological (or rather paradigmatic) properties of these notionals which, having the structure of mere roots or stems, can "show more than one pattern of usage", as C. T. Hockett puts it. In other words, they may follow either the noun or the verb and an adjective pattern. Hence, the grammarian singled out apart from the N, A, V classes of words some double and triple word

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stem classes. These are, for example, the NA class, represented by many words, such as American, human, innocent, private, savage, sweet, which may function both as nouns and adjectives (cf. American scientists, an American). The NV class are words which can respectively have the meaning and perform the function of the noun and verb (cf. a book, to book smth.). The AV class represents words which can show the adjective and the verb pattern (cf. clean hands, to clean the room). The NAV class represents words which can follow the noun, the adjective and the verb pattern respectively (cf. the fat of meat, fat meat, to fat (up) fowls). Thus, "classes of words" clearly reflect the amorphous grammatical nature of many English nouns, verbs, adjectives and sometimes adverbs which in the course of their historical development have been reduced, as a rale, to regular roots or stems. As a result, their true lexico-grammatical nature, i. e. their proper lexical meaning, and consequently their formal and functional characteristics can not be discriminated when taken out of a word-group or sentence. The word "export", for example, may be noun or verb (when indicated by stress or determined by the particle "to"). "Negro" may also be noun (a Negro) or adjective (Negro and white schools); "blue" may be noun (the blue of the sky), adjective (the blue sky), or verb (to blue smth.).

In Ukrainian, on the other hand, the lexical meaning and "formal" (morphological) characteristics of such notional words as експорт, негр, синь, синій, синіти, синіючий, синіючи, etc. are always explicitly displayed already at language level, i.e. when taken separately, out of context (as in dictionaries). Therefore, many notionals in English, unlike their lexico-grammatical equivalents in Ukrainian, are variable, i. e. they may change their nature depending on the contextual environment and their functional significance which they acquire in a syntaxeme.

The variability of some English notionals, which can often shift from one part of speech to another without any morphological changes in their form/structure is certainly the main typological (allomorphic) difference pertaining to the nature of some notional words as compared to the corresponding classes of words in Ukrainian. It becomes especially evident when dealing with the conglomerates like NV, AN, ND, NVA and the like, which are in reality no regular parts of speech but one-lexeme units

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able to realise different functional meanings depending on their functionally relevant place occupied in a syntaxeme (word-group or sentence).

Nevertheless, the existence of the kind of morphologically indistinct notionals in present-day English does not deprive the language of the regular system of notional parts of speech in general and those of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in particular.

These same parts of speech, though considered to be "words in their dictionary form", functioning "as constituents of phrases", are also identified in English by R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik, [54,25 — 27] Along with the four notionals, these grammarians also point out "a set of parts of speech", having a "closed system" in English. The "set" includes "article, demonstrative (that, this) pronouns, preposition, conjunction and interjection." [Ibid.]

There is no doubt whatsoever concerning the status and the set to which, for example, different proper nouns like Ann, Peter, Sam, etc. should be allotted. Neither can there be any doubt in the substantival nature of words denoting specific national notions (Miss, sir, hopak) or internationalisms (actress, emperor, computer, phoneme) and many regular class nouns (boy, girl, tree). Neither can there be any denying the fact that words like "do, hear, listen, read, write", etc. can be allotted at first sight by every English language speaker to verbs, since they express action, whereas words like "happy, new, older/younger" are recognised as qualifiers of nouns, i. e. adjectives, and words like "slowly, quickly, unanimously" will be unerringly taken for qualifiers of actions, i. e. adverbs. Easily enough, already at language level, are identified pronouns (he, she, we, they, who), numerals (ten, the first, the tenth), conjunctions (and, or, if, because) and many other words having the same lexico-grammatical nature in English, Ukrainian, and in many other languages.

Consequently, apart from the semantically and morphologically indistinct conglomerates / "word classes"/ like AN, NVA,VN, etc. having no definite differentiation at language level, there also exist in English a bulk of words whose lexico-grammatical nature as a part of speech is quite evident and indisputable. These words clearly disclose their lexico-grammatical identity already at language level (when taken separately, i.e. when singled out as in dictionary).

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There is much common ground for a typological contrasting of the functional parts of speech as well, which in English and Ukrainian have often their lexico-grammatical nature quite explicit already at language level. This is observed, for example, in case of conjunctions (and, but, or, if, either - or, neither - nor, etc.), prepositions (at, in, on, under), interjections (ah, oh, alas, humph), and some particles (not, to). Most of these functionals, except for the articles, have absolute semantic and functional equivalents in Ukrainian. For example: and - i, but - але, проте, or чи, if-якщо/якби, either-or, чи-чи, in - в/у, on - на, under - під, ah/oh-ax/ox, not-ні/не, etc. As a result, these and a number of other functionals in English and Ukrainian are typologically relevant, i. e. isomorphic, in other words common.

It must be pointed out, however, that some parts of speech both among the notionals and among the semi-notionals/functionals are still disputable in the contrasted languages. Far from unanimously recognised as a separate part of speech by most Western and some Ukrainian and Russian linguists (A. Hryshchenko and co-authors, L.S. Barkhudarov, M.Y. Blokh) is, for example, the stative (alike, asleep), which is considered by these grammarians to be a "predicative adjective". Still other Western grammarians are not quite sure about the numerals which they are inclined to identify as nouns (cardinals) or as relative adjectives (ordinals). Among these grammarians are also R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech and J. Svartvik. Up to now there is no unanimity yet among some grammarians concerning the status of the modal words ("perhaps, sure, certainly," etc.), or particles and even articles, which are not always recognised in English as a separate functional part of speech. [16, 49] This idea might have come to life because of the common in both languages phenomenon of "migration" of some parts of speech from one to another. For example: a just man (adj.), he has just come (adv.), just a moment, please (particle). Similarly in Ukrainian: хто там? (adv.), де там? (particle); а там ще люди (conjunctive element). Надворі холодно (adv.); мені холодно (stative), etc.

On the ground of identical or similar semantic, morphological/formal and syntactic/functional properties pertaining to common lexico-grammatical classes of words, the number of notional parts of speech in English and Ukrainian may be considered (from the typological point of

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view) all in all the same - seven. Namely: noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb, stative - іменник, прикметник, займенник, числівник, дієслово, прислівник, слова категорії стану.

As to the functionals (semi-notional words, as they are still sometimes called) their number in the contrasted languages is not identical, because present-day English has the article which is missing in Ukrainian. The rest of functionals are all common: conjunctions, prepositions, modal words and modal expressions, particles, exclamations, articles (in English), сполучники, прийменники, модальні слова та вирази, частки, вигуки.

Typological Features of the Noun as a Part of Speech

The noun as a part of speech is characterised in English and Ukrainian by a common lexico-grammatical nature of substantivity or "thingness". This meaning (thingness) finds its realisation not only in concrete nouns (book, boy, house, tree, fish, meat, etc.) but also in abstract nouns (love, hatefulness, business, information, etc.). Hence, typologically isomorphic are also the main paradigmatic classes of nouns, which are two: 1) common nouns and 2) proper names.

Each of these two main classes of nouns is sub-categorised in English and Ukrainian into several minor groups which can be found below (Table 10,11).

Common Nouns split in the contrasted languages into the following subclasses:

Table 10

Concrete nouns	Abstract nouns	Collective nouns	Names of materials	Class nouns
arrow, cap, carp, doll, tree, house, book; стріла, дерево, кашкет,	fear, hatred, knowledge, news; страх, ненависть,	cattle, crew, family, militia, government, poultry; худоба,	air, flour, iron, salt, snow; повітря, цукор, борошно,	bird, desk, book, cat, flower, glove, kite; птах, стіл,
короп, лялька,	знання, вість,	екіпаж, сім'я,	залізо, сіль,	квітка, книжка,
дім, хата.	сум, радість.	міліція, гроші.	сніг, пісок.	змій, кіт.

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Proper names in their turn split in English and Ukrainian into some common subclasses as well. The main of them are as follows:

Table 11