Доклад

641. Terrorism in Europe
Иностранные языки

Four overlapping segments exist within Northern Ireland. The majority of the unionist community are generally called Unionists and commit to supporting political parties like the Ulster Unionist Party (known for part of the 1970s and 1980s as the Official Unionist Party) or the more militant protestant Democratic Unionist Party. The larger segment of the nationalist catholic community are generally called simply Nationalist and supported at various times the Nationalist Party and since the 1970s the Social Democratic and Labour Party. Both communities had smaller, more radical elements who supported at various times what one IRA strategist called the "armalite and the ballot box" (ie, a combination of electoral politics and violence when necessary). More radical elements within the unionist community came to be called Loyalists while radical nationalists came to be described as Republicans. Each of the radical groups produced their own paramilitary organisations like the Provisional IRA, Official IRA, Continuity IRA, Real IRA, Irish National Liberation Army etc (all republican), and the Ulster Defence Association, Ulster Freedom Fighters, Red Hand Commandos etc (loyalist). Most such groups had their own political organisations, while some of the groups had overlapping memberships. While the various political movements claimed to speak on behalf of the 'majority of the people', electoral votes throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s returned majorities for Nationalist and Unionist parties at the expense of Republican and Loyalist ones, though the latter two did achieve occasional successes, notably the election of MPs in the constituencies of West Belfast and Fermanagh & South Tyrone. At its electoral highpoint during the troubles, in the 1981 Republic of Ireland general election, it won two seats out of one hundred and sixty six in parliament. Sinn Fйin's major electoral successes only followed the ceasefire of the IRA in the 1990s.
642. The American Wars of the 20th and 21st century
История

For the second time in the 20th century, the United States became involved in a devastating world conflict. The mobilization effort of the government in World War II eclipsed even that of World War I. With major operations in both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters, American industries literally fueled two wars simultaneously.World War (often abbreviated as WWII or WW2), was a global war that was under way by 1939 and ended in 1945. It involved a vast majority of the world's nations-including all of the great powers-eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, with more than 100 million people serving in military units. In a state of "total war", the major participants placed their entire economic, industrial, and scientific capabilities at the service of the war effort, erasing the distinction between civilian and military resources. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it resulted in 50 million to over 70 million fatalities. These deaths make the war the deadliest conflict in human historyevents began happening in Europe that would eventually lead to World War II, many Americans took an increasingly hard line towards getting involved. The events of World War I had fed into America's natural desire to isolationism, and this was reflected by the passage of Neutrality Acts along with the general hands off approach to the events that unfolded on the world stage.number of historical misconceptions circulate about Americas role in the Second World War. They include the idea that America began helping Britain only when attacked herself, and that American aid to Britain before that date came in the teeth of pervasive hostility by the American public, stirred up by anti-British isolationists. The fact that America was brought fully into the war in December 1941 by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour, with Germany declaring war four days later, has created the false impression that America was completely separated from the war before unprovoked Axis aggression reluctantly forced the US into the conflict. Before Pearl Harbour, America began to starve Japan of oil with an oil embargoimposed an enormous pressure on Japan which meant that, without huge territorial gains of oil-producing territory, Japan would run out of oil in one month. This embargo had been imposed in a large part in attempt to prevent the Japanese attacking oil-rich British territory in East Asia (what now includes Malaysia and Singapore) and also territories possessed by Britains ally Holland. Hitlers declaration of war was also the result of American help towards Britain and other alliesassistance included $14,281 in material aid in the form of Lend Lease prior to Pearl Harbour - $1,082 million going to Britain - and direct military action. President Roosevelt had given orders that any German ship found in the eastern Atlantic should be shot at on sight. This meant the United States had more or less entered the War of the Atlantic, the crucial battle between Britain and Germany for Britains key sea routes. Anticipating entering the conflict, the US army grew massively from 267,767 personnel in 1940 to 1,460,998 by mid-1941 - an increase of 446%.83% of Americans wanted Britain and France to win the war against Germany. In the same poll, taken at the beginning of the War in 1939, only 1% would admit to hoping for a German victory. It is of note that the proportion of Americans who did not express support for Britain - 17% - is very close to the percentage of the US population who were substantially of German origin, suggesting that even the dissenting minority was inspired as much by Teutonophilia as by Anglophobia. Initial opposition to American involvement stemmed from the experience of the First World War. [9]there had been a strong public consensus that aid to the Allies was unwise (with only 20% supporting this) and this was reflected in government policy. This reflected a massive interwar consensus against American involvement in all wars - and a belief that, as in the First World War, American aid risked dragging the United States into a huge war with disastrous results. The degree of general anti-war sentiment can be seen by the fact that in January 1939 only 43% of Americans wished to defend neighbouring Mexico and 27% Brazil from attack. Support for aid to Britain rose massively as the UK suffered devastating setbacks early in the war and after Norway, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Belgium and France fell to the Nazis. In June 1940, American opinion was split two-to-one in favour of staying out of the war even if it meant Britain losing. But by November 1940 a majority was in favour of aiding Britain even at the risk of war. By the summer of 1941, half of Americans rejected any negotiation with Germany (with 38% in support). This response suggests that much of the initial lack of support for risking war was based on the work that the Allies could win without American help. The American public consistently believed by margins of 20% or more that there would be a British victory, even during some of Britains darkest moments in the war - with the exception of a few months in mid 1940 when public opinion was evenly divided. [10]of Americas political leadership wanted to aid Britain and her allie. Three days before the 1940 Presidential Election, the two main candidates declared: "Our policy is to give all possible material aid to the nations which still resist aggression across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Roosevelt) and "All of us - Republicans, Democrats and Independents - believe in giving aid to the heroic British people. We must make available to them the products of our industry (Willkie).D. Roosevelt (U. S. President 1933-1945) obviously supported the military and other aid he pioneered. Wendell Willkie, the Republican candidate for President, owed his nomination in large part to his strong support for aiding Britain. In 1940, the Republican field for the Presidential nomination was dominated by former New York gubernatorial candidate Thomas Dewey (who was unclear in his foreign policy stances) and Ohio Senator Robert Taft (who was largely, though not entirely, anti-interventionist). Wendell Willkie was a minor candidate with less political experience than any twentieth century Republican candidate save General Eisenhower. However, his support for interventionism was enough to sweep Willkie to the nomination over both Dewey and Taft. Nonetheless, after receiving the Republican nomination, Willkie somewhat shifted his tone on intervention, and of the two Roosevelt was clearly seen as the more likely to help Britain, with one 1940 poll finding 82% of Americans believed Roosevelt would sell naval vessels to Britain with 42.3% believing that Willkie would do so. Willkie does not appear to have benefited from this shift. Roosevelt faced low popularity levels in the late 1930s owing to domestic issues, but by 1940, election polls showed that foreign policy was Roosevelts greatest strength in the campaign.isolationists should not necessarily be understood as anti-British. America had only once before sent troops to Europe and isolationists sought to avoid the sort of commitments that they believed (with good cause) could lead to a massive war with Germany and (with less justification) that the United States could lose such a war. Foreign orientated groups, whether communist or Nazi, were extremely marginal among isolationists. After the declaration of War, any residual Anglophobia had no effect, with only one member of Congress (a progressive pacifist) voting against war. Charles Lindbergh, Americas most prominent isolationist, declared that had he been in Congress "I certainly would have voted for a declaration of war. After Pearl Harbour, the leading isolationist group America First had closed down within four days and opinion polls showed a consistently large majority in favour of the war, with no organised anti war movement. During the Second World War, America was significantly influenced by and conscious of British opinion. For example British pressure played at least some role in America prioritising the German front of the war even though it was Japan that had attacked America. More than 400,000 Americans gave their lives during the war.American support for Britain has continued since the Second World War both among political elites and the general public. In February 2006, a BBC World Service poll found that Americans gave a higher rating to Britains effect on the world than to the United States, with Americans believing that the United States was good for the world by 63% to 30% - and that Britain was good for the world by a 71% -14% margin. his enormous confidence was based on a long history - of which perhaps the most important was the events of the Second World War.
643. The best of all possible worlds Проект:Соединенное Королевство Британии
Иностранные языки
644. The Conquering Normans
Разное

A talk follows till far on into the night, and many questions are put by the master. How much land is there suitable for ploughing? How much of it did the old thane keep for his own use? How many bushels of corn come from each acre? Do the villagers know how to manure and drain the land properly? Is there any grassland that could be made to grow extra supplies of corn? "For," says lord, "my soldiers must have plenty to eat". "Yes," says the steward, "there is much land fit for the purpose.But do you propose to make the villagers work on this and do their other work as well? Remember, Sir, that there are fewer of them than there were". The Norman replies that he intends his villagers to do not only this, but much more besides. Indeed he goes so far as to say that the men like Gurth, who never worked but only paid food, shall now both pay and work, for more land must be cultivated. And he adds that he intends to increase the amounts of meat, hay, eggs, cheese, butter and other things that the villagers pay. So the stewards returns home in a thoughtful and unhappy state, for he sees hard times coming for his friends and does not like telling them about the extra work that they will have to do. The Norman also goes to bed, but not until he has gone round the house with his chief follower, and posted sentinels; for he has no wish to be murdered in his sleep by his new servants, as has happened to some of his friends.He and his followerds do not thing much of the old house. The old English thanes did not make their houses strong for defence, for they had nothing to fear from their villagers. But the Norman says:"We must have a safer place than this to sleep in, or our throats wiil all be cut some night".So the steward wiil hear if another piece of work for his friends in the village to do.
645. The Crimea
Разное

The lime-rich soil is especially favourable for growing grapes that are used in the production of sparkling wine. Champaign almost tops the list of favourite alcoholic beverages drunk by Russian people, especially on festive occasions. The champagne making process is rather long. First of all the wine is left to ferment, it may age from 18 months to 5 years. The top of the bottle where the sediment lies is frozen, then the bottle is opened and once the sediment is out, the bottle is recouped and secured with wire.
646. The differences between management and leadership
Менеджмент

There is a big difference between management and leadership. In my opinion management is a very huge term; covering many aspects, while leadership may be considered as a part of management. Management refers to the art of directing, controlling, and supervising a group of people or employees with the help of many management tools, which can also include leadership, while leadership can be said as the process of leading a group of certain people. (4)can be properly defined as "the art of managing people and the person is called manger who utilizes human resource, finances, technology, and natural resources to get certain results in the favor of the organization. Leadership is a part of management and it is the inborn capability of the individual which makes him a successful leader. It is very necessary for a leader that his subordinates should be purely his followers, otherwise the leader might not be considered as a good leader.scholars have agreed on this theory that management process includes leading the management, organizing the complete management, planning how to handle the management, controlling all the factors and besides these all the problems faced is a part of management. So in my opinion the difference between management and leadership exist because of the vastness in terminologies. Management is a vast term which covers the term leadership and thus making it a part of management.fact a person who wants to be a real manager has to pass through three levels to achieve its aim. While both managers and leaders play important organizational roles, only a real manager can not only to inspire his team, but to achieve high results.people are first appointed to the manager role, they tend to behave like overseers and become task focused. We can call this Level 1. They are just trying to figure it all out. "What are we trying to do here? How do we get it done?" They are basically focused on the work and achieving on-time and on-budget delivery.leaders understand what it takes to be successful in the work, they then begin to realize that they can be more effective if their people are more effective. When that happens, they make the leap to Level 2. They go from being an overseer to a coach, from being task-focused to people-focused.2 leaders direct their energies toward understanding their people's skills, maximizing their strengths and minimizing their weaknesses. Level 2 leaders focus on communicating the overall picture of what they are trying to accomplish. They delegate, they groom, and they spend a lot of time ensuring that everyone is clear about the goals. They understand that to be successful, their people have to understand the leader's objectives and the key principles for decision-making.your people do not understand your principles of operation, they will make decisions based on their own principles - which may or may not match yours!you are in the presence of a Level 2 leader, you know it because the difference is like night and day. Level 1 leaders talk about the tasks, the deliverables and the factors related to accomplishing them. Level 2 leaders, however, tend to be focused on people. They realize that they can be more successful if their people are more successful.while the difference between Level 1 and Level 2 leaders is significant, the difference between Level 2 and Level 3 leaders is even more so. While Level 1 leaders focus on task, and Level 2 leaders focus on people, Level 3 leaders focus on the future. They are constantly forward focused. We call Level 3 the visionary level.3 leaders want to know how decisions today will impact the future. They consistently ask themselves, "Where is the business going? How do we align our efforts with the business objectives? What do our customers want? What is coming down the pike that we need to be preparing for today? What do we need to be doing today to better prepare our business for the future?", the three levels are not positions in an organization. They are levels of development for a leader. Tragically, you can have the CEO of an organization operating at Level 1. You can also have someone in a position like receptionist acting at Level 3. For example, while a Level 1 receptionist is just trying to get all the phone calls answered while greeting people who walk through the door, a Level 3 receptionist would be constantly looking for ways to improve how the phone and greeting processes could better support the business. To move from Level 1 to Level 2, you have to understand what it takes to be successful in the job. You don't have to know how to do the job, just what it takes to be successful so you can recruit, coach, groom and evaluate others. Until you are clear on what it takes to be successful, we recommend focusing your energies on Level 1 activities.2 is called coach. Therefore to have the luxury of focusing your energies on Level 3, you have to have people in place who know what it takes to be successful and who can coach other people. If you do not have people who can coach others, you will be kept at Level 2 because you will be the one coaching. To move from Level 2 to Level 3, you have to have people who know what they are doing, but those people must also know how to develop other people.Level 3 model is intended to encourage striving for a higher vision for leadership. However if we only reward people who get things done on time and under budget, our leaders will be encouraged to focus on Level 1. We must have rewards and incentives for building leadership skills in others, anticipating customer needs, and creating and implementing higher visions.
647. The Higher school and the ways to science
Разное

Research enables the students to improve their knowledge and put to practical use the things they learn at lectures, seminars and laboratories. Furthermore, it enables them to realize the practical value of their knowledge, to master the basic experimental techniques, to learn how to handle the modern equipment and analyse the results of experiment.
648. The impact of the French Revolution on the European system
История

French Revolution was very complex event which raises so many different and contradictory assessments. Many different groups of people of various public movements, different classes have tried to find a better life for themselves and their own way to resolve issues of justice and freedom through revolution. Tremendous passion of people to free themselves from the oppression of the rich, from the injustice cannot not to evoke sympathy. How to make all of them free, happy and prosperous? Even Rousseau, Helvetius, Mably, Diderot, and others consider an inequality of states and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few people the major obstacle to the establishment of democratic freedom. And in the years of revolution, these attitudes began to speak with greater force. Many of the Revolutionists maintained that equality of political rights is nothing, if not right in practice. The latter, said Condorcet, represents "the latest target of public art", since the inequality of wealth, inequality of states and inequality of education - the main premise of all evil. A very common formula the first years of the revolution: "Big states represent an obstacle to freedom." In large cities, people in the needs of life itself first appeared communist ideas. Chief among them: the distribution of means of subsistence and the general membership on the ground, as well as the right to education for all. It was assumed, along with the right of all the products and the products of the first and second necessity, as a personal right to surplus (Karlyle, 2002).
649. The influence of the Great Britain on our daily life
Разное

St. Valentines Day is celebrated on February 14. Every St. Valentines Day thousands of people travel to a small village on Scotlands border with England to get married. The village is called Gretna Green. Its romantic reputation began in 1754.
650. The Israeli-Lebanese conflict
Юриспруденция, право, государство

%20began%206%20June%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_6>,%20when%20Israel%20invaded%20again%20for%20the%20purpose%20of%20retaliation%20attacking%20the%20Palestine%20Liberation%20Organization%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization>.%20During%20the%20conflict,%2014,000%20Lebanese%20and%20Palestinians%20were%20killed,%20and%20the%20Israeli%20army%20sieged%20Beirut%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Beirut>.%20Fighting%20also%20occurred%20between%20Israel%20and%20Syria%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria>.%20The%20United%20States%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States>,%20fearing%20a%20widening%20conflict%20and%20the%20prestige%20the%20siege%20was%20giving%20PLO%20leader%20Yasser%20Arafat%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasser_Arafat>,%20got%20all%20sides%20to%20agree%20to%20a%20cease-fire%20and%20terms%20for%20the%20PLO's%20withdrawal%20on%2012%20August%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_12>.%20The%20predominantly%20muslim%20Multinational%20Force%20in%20Lebanon%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon>%20arrived%20to%20keep%20the%20peace%20and%20ensure%20PLO%20withdrawal.%20Arafat%20retreated%20from%20Beirut%20on%2030%20August%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_30>%201982%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982>%20and%20settled%20in%20Tunisia%20<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia>.">The 1982 Lebanon war <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_war> began 6 June <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_6>, when Israel invaded again for the purpose of retaliation attacking the Palestine Liberation Organization <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization>. During the conflict, 14,000 Lebanese and Palestinians were killed, and the Israeli army sieged Beirut <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Beirut>. Fighting also occurred between Israel and Syria <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria>. The United States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States>, fearing a widening conflict and the prestige the siege was giving PLO leader Yasser Arafat <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasser_Arafat>, got all sides to agree to a cease-fire and terms for the PLO's withdrawal on 12 August <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_12>. The predominantly muslim Multinational Force in Lebanon <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon> arrived to keep the peace and ensure PLO withdrawal. Arafat retreated from Beirut on 30 August <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_30> 1982 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982> and settled in Tunisia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisia>.
651. The native americans
Разное

The year of 1622 marked the beginning of the century-long conflict between the Native Americans and the white settlers. The slogan The good Indian is a dead Indian was used for more than 200 years. The motive for the genocide against the native peoples was to dispossess them of their land and resources and to get rid of people who could not be exploited. The means were varied and included not only outright mass extermination, but also slavery, bounty-hunting (scalping for profit), massacre of women and children, the assassination of leaders, death by european-introduced diseases, the forced relocation of peoples. Even the pronouncement in the Declaration of Independence that all men are created equal was not true for the Native Americana. They looked upon as savages, as non-persons, not even worth mentioning. The American government forced the Indians to sign treaties that were nothing but enormous land-robbery. They had to depend upon the good will (or lack of it) of the US government. By 1900 the Indians had been reduced to about 250,000. The Civil Rights Act of 1924 theoretically gave the Indians outside the reservations the same rights as any other citizen of the United States. But they were not given any chance to make use of these rights.
652. The Queen of the UK
Разное

Thereafter her official duties increased, particularly in connection with young people: she was President of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital for Children in Hackney and the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. From March 1944 onwards, she also began to accompany the King and Queen on many of their tours within Britain.

Shortly after her eighteenth birthday in 1944, Princess Elizabeth was appointed a Counsellor of State during the King's absence on a tour of the Italian battlefields and, for the first time, carried out some of the duties of Head of State. In August that year, with Queen Elizabeth, the Princess received an address from the House of Commons, and replied on behalf of the Throne.

In September 1944, the Princess carried out her first official tour of Scotland with her parents, including her first opening ceremony in October when she opened the recently reconstructed Aberdeen Sailors' Home. The Princess's first flight by air was in July 1945, when she accompanied the King and Queen on a two-day visit to Northern Ireland.
653. The Sea
Разное

But at the same time the sea can be dangerous. In Great Britain it is not obligatory to have safety equipment on a vessel. Thats why accidents are not rare in the sea. In order to save people special life-boat stations are scattered throughout the coast. There are about 200 of them and every of them has its own rescue crew. Every crew consists of 14 members among whom only one is a real professional, mainly coxswain mechanic and others are volunteers. Having received an alarm it takes just 6 minutes to launch a life-boat and leave the mooring. Rescue crews are called out 5000 times a year and save 1500 lives during that period of time. These people are especially addicted to the sea, because nothing can be compared with an extremely rewarding feeling of satisfaction after saving ones life.
654. The Urals
Разное

The Russian character and identity have long been influenced by the fact that Russia spreads across the two continents: Europe and Asia. The boundary between the two continents lies along the Ural Mountains that also mark the beginning of Siberia. Siberia covers a vast area of over five million square kilometers. For several decades Siberia was strictly off limits to foreigners and only in the early 1990s it became accessible for everybody. The population of Siberia has grown both from a mix of adventurers and fortune seekers who settled there voluntarily and those who were forced there for criminal and political reasons. Tzar Nicolas II and his family were the most prominent people who were forced there. In the center of Yekaterinburg there is a monument to Jakov Sverdlov, a high ranking official, who was responsible for the execution of the royal family. The brutal execution took place in 1918 in the basement room of the house in Yekaterinburg. That house was bulldozed in 1977, as it was an inconvenient reminder of bloody methods of the Communist regime. The royal family was given a secret burial in an unmarked meadow. Controversies about the members of the royal family continued until 1994 when the DNA testing identified the bodies of nine people of the royal family including Anastasia who had been long considered to have survived by a miracle.
655. The US Economy after September 11th. Decline or Rapid Growth? (Экономика США после 11-ого сентября. ...
Разное

Economic data published since September 11th have, not surprisingly, been gloomy. America's industrial production fell in September by 1%. That was its 12th successive month of decline, the longest unbroken fall since 1945. The current manufacturing activity had plunged to its lowest level since February 1991. The 5.8% output loss of the past 12 months is already greater than in the recession of 1990-91. Retail sales also fell in September, by 2.4%, consumers cut back their spending in September by the largest amount in nearly 15 years. To cope with sagging sales, manufacturers have sharply cut back production and shed workers. The nation's unemployment rate leaped from 4.9% in September to 5.4% in October, the biggest one-month jump in more than 21 years. This is the highest unemployment rate since December 1996. 415,000 jobs were eliminated during the month, which represented the biggest cut in payrolls since May 1980. Manufacturing, airlines, travel agencies, hotels, retailers were among those suffering big losses. ''Companies are in survival mode and they are cutting jobs to control costs,'' said economist Ken Mayland of Clearwork Economics. ''The tragic events of September 11th and their aftermath probably tipped the economy into recession. People are waiting for the other shoe to drop.'' There is one more indirect evidence of the tough state of staff policy in American companies: many of them are planning to cancel traditional Christmas Parties due to their poor financial condition.
656. Traditional Meals in Mexico
Иностранные языки
657. Tеренций
Литература

В России Феофан Прокопович, читая курс пиитики в киевской академии, преподавал "Российским господам Мольерам": "кто хочет писать комедию, пусть тот подражает Т." (ср. Б. Варнеке, "Римский поэт Т. на западноевропейской сцене", в "Вестн. Всемирн. Истор." за 1900 г.). Рукописей Т. дошло до нас очень много. Все они, за исключением главного источника для восстановления текста - Бембинского кодекса (V в.; назван по имени прежнего владельца кардинала Бембо, ныне в Ватикане) - восходят к рецензии грамматика III в. по Р. Хр. Каллиопия. Некоторые из рукописей (париж., ватикан., миланск.) снабжены любопытными рисунками. Наиболее полная критическая рецензия текста Т. принадлежит Umpfenbach'y (Б., 1870); затем заслуживают внимания издания Fabia (П., 1895), Meckeisen'a (Лпц., 1898, 2 изд.), Dziatzko (Лпц., 1884). С русскими примечаниям и изданы две пьесы Т.: "Heautontimorumenos" - Делленом (Харьков, 1879, оттиск из "Зап. Харьк. Унив. за 1878-79 гг.) и "Eunuchus" - Фогелем (Нежин, 1884; оттиск из "Извест. Неж. Инст.", тт. IX и X). Переводы комедий Т. на русский язык: "Andria" Д. Подгурского (Киев, 1874; оттиск из "Трудов Киевск. Дух. Акад." за 1873 г.), В. Алексеева (СПб., 1896, в "Дешевой Библиотеке" Суворина), С. Николаева в ("Пантеоне Литературы" за 1893 г. и отд. Воронеж. 1897 г.), "Гэавтонтимоременос" А. Резоали(Киев, 1862), "Братья" М. П. Петровского (в "Зап. Каз. Унив. ", 1873,. №№ 2-3). Полный перевод всех комедии (А. Хвостова. М. Головина и друг.) был издан в СПб., в 1773-74 г. См. В. И. Модестов, "Лекции по истории римской литературы" (СПб., 1888); Зотов, "Разбор комедий 1. ("Репертуар" за 1845 г.). Языком Т. занимался К. Тресс (работы его см. в "Журн. Мин. Нар. Пр.", 1877, и в "Варшавских Унив. Изв.", 1880). Иностранная литература о Т. до новейшего времени указана в книге Шанца: "Geschichte der rom. Litteratur" (ч. 1, Мюнхен, 1898).
658. Unix, базовые принципы и особенности
Компьютеры, программирование
Область инодов разбита на 64-х байтные структуры - inod'ы. В inod'е хранится:
- Тип файла (файл/каталог/специальный файл/fifo/socket)
  Атрибуты (права доступа)
  Владелец файла
  Группа-владелец файла
  Времена создания, модификации, последнего доступа к файлу
  Длина файла
  Адрес 1-го блока файла
  Адрес 2-го блока файла
  ...
  Адрес 10-го блока файла
  Адрес блока косвенной адресации (блока с 256 адресами блоков)
  Адрес блока 2-й косвенной адресации (блока с 256 адресами блоков с адресами)
  Адрес блока 3-й косвенной адресации (блока с адресами блоков с адресами блоков с адресами)
659. US Federal judicial system
Юриспруденция, право, государство

The Constitutional Conventions decisions in 1787 about the national governments court system were few but important. The framers agreed that there would be a separate federal judicial power and that to exercise it there would be a Supreme Court and there could be other federal courts. They specified the jurisdiction those courts could exercise, subject to congressional exceptions. They prescribed the appointment procedure for Supreme Court judges, and they sought to protect all federal judges from reprisals for unpopular decisions: Judges compensation could not be reduced, and judges could not be removed from office other than by legislative impeachment and conviction. Putting flesh on this skeleton fell to the First Congress. The Judiciary Act and the Bill of Rights same forces that contended over the writing and ratification of the Constitution in 1787 and 1788 sparred in the First Congress in 1789 over the nations judicial system. Federalists generally supported the Constitution and the policies of President Washingtons administration, and they wanted to establish a lower federal judiciary. Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution or at least wanted significant changes in it and favored at best only a very limited federal judiciary. After the Constitution went into effect in 1789, outright opposition to it diminished quickly. Democratic Republicans, or “Jeffersonians,” emerged as a counter to the Federalists in power. department will be oppressive.” The star chamber of British legal history lingered in some peoples minds, and many more remembered how state courts issued judgments against debtors during the economic turmoil under the Articles of Confederation. Charles Warren identified four main changes that opponents sought in the Constitutions judiciary provisions: guaranteeing civil as well as criminal trial juries, restricting federal appellate jurisdiction to questions of law, eliminating or radically curtailing congressional authority to establish lower federal courts, and eliminating the authorization for federal diversity jurisdiction. Many who had supported the Constitution, however, believed a federal court system was necessary but doubted the need for a bill of rights. To them, the Constitution, in Hamiltons famous phrase, “is itself, in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights.” The Constitution as ratified contained specific limitations on the national government (e. g., Article IIIs provision for criminal jury trials), and in a broader sense, it established an energetic national government, extending over a large republic, that would be capable of protecting people from the oppression of local factions. Courts would also protect rights. As Chief Justice John Jay later told the grand juries of the Eastern Circuit, “nothing but a strong government of laws irresistibly bearing down [upon] arbitrary power and licentiousness can defend [liberty] against those two formidable enemies.” To many Federalists, state courts under the Articles of Confederation had too easily yielded to popular pressures; the Federalists believed that a separate set of federal courts was necessary to achieve “a strong government of laws.”
660. Usenet
Компьютеры, программирование

C Отменяет статью (повсюду), которую вы написали. Каждая посланная на Usenet статья имеет неповторяющийся идентификационный номер (ИД номер). Нажатие большой буквы C посылает новое сообщение, по которому каждая получившая ранее статью местная система находит ее и удаляет. ). F Послать общедоступный отклик. Если эта команда выбрана при нахождении на "странице" группы новостей, вас спросят, к какой статье послать отклик. Если она выбрана при работе с конкретной статьей, отклик будет направлен к этой статье. В любом случае будет задан вопрос, хотите ли вы включить исходную статью в свой текст. Внимание: будет вызван тот текстовый редактор, который установлен у вас по умолчанию. ). N Переход к следующей группе новостей с непрочитанными статьями). P Переход к предыдущей группе новостей с непрочитанными статьями. ). G груп.новПереходит к указанной группе новостей. Может быть использована для подписки на новую группу новостей. Нажатие клавиши G выводит субменю:u Переход к группе и показ только непрочитанных статей. :a Переход к группе и показ всех статей, в том числе уже прочитанных. :s Будут показаны только статью с конкретной темой (subject). :n Будут показаны только статьи, написанные конкретным лицом. ). M Посылает кому-то копию текущей статьи. Вас спросят электронный адрес получателя, а также о том, хотите ли вы добавить какие-либо комментарии к пересылаемой статье перед отправкой. Как и команда F, выводит в принятый по умолчанию редактор. ). :post Поместить статью. У вас спросят имя группы. ). Q Выйти из nn. ). U Отменить подписку на текущую группу новостей. ). R Ответить на статью по электронной почте. ). пробел Нажатие пробела вызывает следующую страницу статьи. ). X Если у вас есть выбранные статьи, то эта команда покажет их вам и переведет вас к следующей группе новостей с непрочитанными статьями. Если выбранных статей нет, то все статьи отмечаются как прочитанные, и вы переходите к следующей группе новостей. ). =слово Находит и отмечает все статьи в группе новостей с указанным словом в качестве строки темы ("subject:"), например:
=modemZ Показывает все выбранные статьи немедленно и возвращается в текущую группу новостей. ). ? Вызывает экран помощи). < Переходит к предыдущей странице в группе новостей. ). > Переходит к следующей странице в группе новостей. ). $ Переходит к последней странице статьи. ). ^ Переходит к первой странице статьи.Команды rn

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