N. M. Rayevska modern english
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N. M. RAYEVSKA
MODERN
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
For Senior Courses of the Foreign Language Faculties in Universities and Teachers' Training Colleges
Сканирование, распознавание, проверка:
Аркадий Куракин {ark # mksat, net}, сентябрь 2004 г.
Для некоммерческих целей.
Исправлено ок. 10 опечаток.
Орфография из американской переведена в британскую.
(Пропущены с.c. 129-136, 154-155 и 168-169)
VYŠČA SKOLA PUBLISHERS KIEV — 1976
Н. М. РАЄВСЬКА
ТЕОРЕТИЧНА
ГРАМАТИКА
СУЧАСНОЇ
АНГЛІЙСЬКОЇ
МОВИ
Допущено Міністерством вищої і середньої спеціальної освіти УРСР як підручник для студентів факультетів романо-германської філології університетів і педагогічних інститутів іноземних мов
ВИДАВНИЧЕ ОБ'ЄДНАННЯ «ВИЩА ШКОЛА»
ГОЛОВНЕ ВИДАВНИЦТВО
КИЇВ — 1976
4И (Англ) Р16
Учебник теоретической грамматики современного английского языка состоит из трёх разделов: I. Вступление, II. Морфология и III. Синтаксис. Основная задача курса — развитие лингвистического мышления студентов, научного понимания грамматических и лексико-грамматических категорий современного английского языка. В центре внимания проблемные вопросы теории грамматики на современном этапе развития языкознания. Эти вопросы освещаются в плане систематических сопоставлений с украинским и другими языками.
В конце каждого раздела представлены контрольные вопросы, Revision Material, которые должны содействовать усвоению материала учебника и помочь студентам в их самостоятельной научной работе.
Учебник рассчитан на студентов старших курсов факультетов романо-германской филологии университетов и педагогических институтов иностранных языков.
Підручник теоретичної граматики сучасної англійської мови складається з трьох розділів: І. Вступ, II. Морфологія і III. Синтаксис. Основне завдання курсу — розвиток лінгвістичного мислення студентів, наукового розуміння граматичних і лексико-граматичних категорій сучасної англійської мови. В центрі уваги проблемні питання теорії граматики на сучасному етапі розвитку мовознавства. Ці питання висвітлюються в плані систематичних зіставлень з українською та іншими мовами.
В кінці кожного розділу подано контрольні питання, Revision Material, які мають сприяти засвоєнню матеріалу підручника і допомогти студентам в їхній самостійній науковій роботі.
Підручник розраховано на студентів старших курсів факультетів романо-германської філології університетів і педагогічних інститутів іноземних мов.
Редакція літератури з іноземних мов
Зав. редакцією М. М. Азаренко
НАТАЛИЯ НИКОЛАЕВНА РАЕВСКАЯ
Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка
Допущено Министерством высшего и среднего специального образования УССР в качестве учебника для студентов факультетов романо-германской филологии университетов и педагогических институтов иностранных языков (на английском языке)
Издательское объединение «Вища школа». Головное издательство.
Редактор Л. О. Нагорна Обкладинка художника Я. М. Яковенка. Художній редактор М. М. Панасюк Технічний редактор Т. І. Мазюк Коректор О. I. Кравчук.
Здано до набору 27.05 1975 р. Підписано до друку 13 01 1976 р. Формат паперу 60Х90 1/16 Папір друк. № 2 Друк арк. 19 Обл.-видавн. арк. 21,78 Видавн. № 2380. Тираж 5000 Ціна 85 коп. Зам. № 5—1419.
Головне видавництво видавничого об'єднання
«Вища школа» 252054, Київ-54, Гоголівська, 7.
Надруковано з матриць Головного підприємства республіканського виробничого об'єднання «Поліграфкнига» Держкомвидаву УРСР, м. Київ, вул. Довженка, 3 в Київській книжковій друкарні наукової книги, Рєпіна, 4. Зам 6-281.
(C) Видавниче об'єднання «Вища школа», 1976.
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
(перевод с русского языка сделан при сканировании)
Учебник теоретической грамматики современного английского языка предназначается для студентов старших курсов факультетов романо-германской филологии университетов и педагогических институтов иностранных языков.
Курс состоит из трёх разделов: I. Вступление. II. Морфология и III. Синтаксис. Материал книги изложен в плане программных требований к теоретическим курсам, направляя внимание студентов на научное понимание новейших достижений в развитии современной грамматической теории. В центре внимания лежит вопрос системного характера языка, диалектического единства формы и содержания всех грамматических явлений, функционально-семантических связей между единицами разного уровня.
Книга знакомит читателя с развитием грамматической теории английского языка и научными поисками новых методов грамматического анализа в исследованиях советских и зарубежных лингвистов.
В учебнике освещаются также такие вопросы, как синтагматические и ассоциативные отношения лингвистических единиц, проблема «грамматическая категория и контекст», понятие оппозиции для раскрытия сути грамматических категорий в морфологии и синтаксисе, принцип поля в изучении структуры языка, семантические аспекты синтаксиса, имплицитная предикация и проблема синтаксической парадигмы. Валентность грамматических форм изучается в разных условиях их синтагматической дистрибуции. Надлежащее внимание уделено функциональным транспозициям разных форм их полисемии, синонимической корреляции и стилистическим функциям.
Учитывая то, что специализация студентов факультетов иностранных языков университетов ведётся в настоящее время с двух иностранных языков, отдельные вопросы курса теоретической грамматики современного английского языка освещаются в плане сопоставлений с другими языками.
В конце каждого раздела представлены контрольные вопросы, Revision Маterial, которые не только содействуют усвоению материала учебника, а и направляют студента на самостоятельную научную работу по теории грамматики.
ПЕРЕДМОВА
Підручник теоретичної граматики сучасної англійської мови призначається для студентів старших курсів факультетів романо-германської філології університетів і педагогічних інститутів іноземних мов.
Курс складається з трьох розділів: І. Вступ. II. Морфологія і III. Синтаксис. Матеріал книги викладено в плані програмних вимог до теоретичних курсів, скеровуючи увагу студентів на наукове розуміння найновіших досягнень у розвитку сучасної граматичної теорії. У центрі уваги питання системного характеру мови, діалектичної єдності форми і змісту всіх граматичних явищ, функціонально-семантичних зв'язків між одиницями різного рівня.
Книга знайомить читача з розвитком граматичної теорії англійської мови та науковими пошуками нових методів граматичного аналізу в дослідженнях радянських і зарубіжних лінгвістів.
У підручнику висвітлюються також такі питання, як синтагматичні і асоціативні відношення лінгвістичних одиниць, проблема «граматична категорія і контекст», поняття опозиції для розкриття суті граматичних категорій в морфології і синтаксисі, принцип поля у вивченні структури мови, семантичні аспекти синтаксису, імпліцитна предикація і проблема синтаксичної парадигми. Валентність граматичних форм вивчається в різних умовах їх синтагматичної дистрибуції. Належну увагу приділено функціональним транспозиціям різних форм їх полісемії, синонімічній кореляції і стилістичним функціям.
Зважаючи на те, що спеціалізація студентів факультетів іноземних мов університетів провадиться в цей час з двох іноземних мов, окремі питання курсу теоретичної граматики сучасної англійської мови висвітлюються в плані зіставлень з іншими мовами.
В кінці кожного розділу подано контрольні питання, Revision Маterial, які не тільки сприяють засвоєнню матеріалу підручника, а й скеровують студента на самостійну наукову роботу з теорії граматики.
5
FOREWORD
The book is designed for the students of the senior courses of the University faculties of foreign languages and Teachers' Training Colleges. The aim of the book is therefore to lead the students to a scientific understanding of new assumptions and views of language as system, keeping abreast of the latest findings set forth in the progressive development of grammatical theory by Soviet and foreign scholars in recent times.
The central interest in functional semantic correlation of grammatical units has given shape to the whole book. In a description of language structure we have to account for the form, the substance and the relationship between the form and the situation. Linguistic activity participates in situations alongside with man's other activities.
Grammatical categories are viewed as a complicated unity of form and grammatical content. Due attention has been drawn to contextual level of analysis, to denotative and connotative meanings of grammatical forms, their transpositions and functional re-evaluation in different contexts, linguistic or situational.
Linguistic studies of recent years contain a vast amount of important observations based on acute observations valid for further progressive development of different aspects of the science of language. The conception of the general form of grammars has steadily developed. What becomes increasingly useful for insight into the structure and functioning of language is orientation towards involving lexis in studying grammar.
In a language description we generally deal with three essential parts known as phonology, vocabulary, and grammar. These various ranges, or levels, are the subject matter of the various branches of linguistics. We may think of vocabulary as the word-stock, and grammar as the set of devices for handling this word-stock. It is due precisely to these devices that language is able to give material linguistic form to human thought.
Practically speaking, the facts of any language are too complex to be handled without arranging them into such divisions. We do not mean to say, however, that these three levels of study should be thought of as isolated from each other. The affinities between all levels of linguistic organisation make themselves quite evident. Conceived in isolation, each of them will always become artificial and will hardly justify itself in practice. It is not always easy to draw precise boundaries between
6
grammar and vocabulary. Sometimes the subject matter becomes ambiguous just at the borderline. The study of this organic relationship in language reality seems to be primary in importance.
For a complete description of language we have to account for the form, the substance and the relationship between the form and the situation. The study of this relationship may be referred to as contextual level of analysis.
Grammar, whose subject matter is the observable organisation of words into various combinations, takes that which is common and basic in linguistic forms and gives in an orderly way accurate descriptions of the practice to which users of the language conform. And with this comes the realisation that this underlying structure of the language (as system) is highly organised. Whatever are the other interests of modern linguistic science, its centre is surely an interest in the grammatical system of language.
To-day we have well-established techniques for the study of language from a number of different points of view. Each of these techniques supplements all the others in contributing to theoretical knowledge and the practical problems of the day.
Language is a functional whole and all its parts are fully describable only in terms of their relationship to the whole. This level of linguistic analysis is most obviously relevant to the problems of "overt" and "covert" grammar and the problem of "field structure" in grammar that has long attracted the attention of linguists.
There is a discussion of the problems that arise in the presentation of the material in this light but the scope of the material presented is dictated by its factual usefulness.
Analysing the language from the viewpoint of the information it carries we cannot restrict the notion of information to the cognitive aspect of language. Connotative aspects and emotional overtones are also important semantic components of linguistic units.
The components of grammatical meaning that do not belong to the denotation of the grammatical form are covered by the general term of connotation most obviously relevant to grammatical aspects of style.
Grammatical forms play a vital role in our ability to lend variety to speech, to give "colour" to the subject or evaluate it and to convey the information more emotionally.
The given quotations from different sources serve to show how the structural elements of English grammar have been variously treated by different writers and which of the linguistic approaches seems most convincing.
Extracts for study and discussion have been selected from the works of the best writers which aid in the formation of the student's literary taste and help him to see how the best writers make the deepest resources of grammar serve their pen.
Only some of the quotations used are the gatherings of the author's note-books through many years of teaching, and it has not seemed possible in every instance to trace the quotation to its original source. Most
7
of them, however, have been freshly selected as the direct result of the extensive reading required by the preparation of the book.
The discussion of the linguistic facts has been made concrete by the use of illustrative examples and comparison with Russian and Ukrainian, French and German.
Suggested assignments for study and discussion have been selected with a view to extend the practical knowledge of the language. "Revision Material" after each chapter has been arranged so that the student should acquire as much experience in independent work as possible.
Methods of scientific research used in linguistic studies have always been connected with the general trends in the science of language. We therefore find it necessary to begin our grammatical description with a brief survey of linguistic schools in the theory of English grammar so that the students could understand various theoretical approaches to the study of language structure. This will facilitate the study of grammar where we find now divergent views of scholars on some of the most important or controversial problems of the English grammatical theory, and on some special questions of morphology and syntax.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword 6
Introduction
Survey of the Development of English Grammatical Theory 11
Grammar in Its Relation to Other Levels of Linguistic Structure 37
Problems of Field Structure 42
Functional Re-evaluation of Grammatical Forms in Context 45
Grammatical Doublets 55
Revision Material 59
Part I. Morphology
Chapter 1. The Subject-Matter of Morphology 60
Chapter II. Parts of Speech 67
Problem of Classification 67
Chapter III The Noun 72
Number 72
Case 78
The Article 84
Revision Material 88
Chapter IV. The Adjective 89
The Category of Intensity and Comparison 90
Substantivation of Adjectives 96
Revision Material 98
Chapter V. The Verb 99
The Structural Functions of the English Verb 105
Mood 107
Modal Verbs 111
Voice 118
Active :: Passive in the English Voice System 118
Aspect 130
Lexico-Grammatical Categories in the Field of Aspect 130
Revision Material 136
Chapter VI. English Verb-Forms and Their Pattern-Value 137
The Present Tense 137
The Present Continuous (Progressive) Tense 141
The Past Tense 146
The Past Continuous (Progressive) Tense 147
The Perfect Tenses 149
The Future Tense 154
Revision Material 159
Chapter VII. The Pronouns 160
Personal Pronouns 160
Chapter VIII. The Adverb 164
Category of State 166
Revision Material 168
9
Part II. Syntax
Chapter IX. Sentence Structure 169
Chapter X. The Simple Sentence 183
The Principal Parts of the Sentence 183
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence 189
Word-Order 195
One-Member Sentences 208
Infinitival Sentences 211
Ellipsis 212
Verbless Two-Member Sentences 215
Idiomatic Sentences 225
Constructional Homonymity 228
Revision Material 233
Chapter XL Phrase-Structure 234
Subordinate Phrases 236
Noun-Phrases 236
Verb-Phrases 242
Infinitival, Gerundial and Participial Phrases 249
Coordinate Phrases 249
Revision Material 251
Chapter XII. The Composite Sentence 252
Coordination 257
Subordination 261
Subject and Predicate Clauses 262
Object Clauses 264
Attributive Clauses 265
Clauses of Cause 267
Clauses of Place 268
Temporal Clauses 269
Clauses of Condition 270
Clauses of Result 273
Clauses of Purpose 274
Clauses of Concession 274
Clauses of Manner and Comparison 277
Overlapping Relationships and Synsemantics in Hypotaxis . 278
Transpositions and Functional Re-evaluation of Syntactic Structures . . 280
Final Remarks on Subordination 282
Asyndeton 283
Represented Speech 285
Nominality in English Sentence-Structure 286
Grammar and Style . 291
Revision Material 298
Index of Grammatical Points Treated 299
Recommended Literature 303
INTRODUCTION
S
URVEY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLISH GRAMMATICAL THEORYEARLY PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR
English grammatical theory has a long tradition going back to the earliest Latin grammars of the 17th century when "grammar" meant only the study of Latin. Until the end of the 16th century there were no grammars of English. One of the earliest Latin grammars written in English was W. Lily's work published in the first half of the 16th century.
Looking at English through the lattice of categories set up in Latin grammar, W. Lily presented standards for similar arrangement of the English grammatical material proceeding from Latin paradigms and using the same terminology as in Latin grammar.
Lily's work went through many editions until 1858. In other early "prenormative" grammars the arrangement of the material was similar to that of "Lily's grammar. It is to be noted that using Latin categories the writers of that time did not altogether ignore distinctions that the English language made. Thus, for instance, in Lily's grammar translation of Latin inflectional forms is given with the important points of reservation that some of their English equivalents are analytical forms, which include auxiliary words as "signs".
Attempts to break with Latin grammatical tradition characterise the treatment of the structure of English in Bullokar's and Ch. Butler's grammars but in many cases they still follow the Latin pattern.
The early prenormative grammars of English reproduced the Latin classification of the word-classes which included eight parts of speech. Substantives and adjectives were grouped together as two kinds of nouns, the participle was considered as a separate part of speech.
In the earliest English grammars the parts of speech were divided dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech or words with number and words without number (Ben Jonson), or words with number and case and words without number and case (Ch. Butler). Declinable words, with number and case, included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, the indeclinables — adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Ben Jonson increased the number of parts of speech. His classification includes the article as the ninth part of speech.
In J. Brightland's grammar (the beginning of the 18th century) the number of parts of speech was reduced to four. These were: names (nouns), qualities (adjectives), affirmations (verbs) and particles.
li
Brightland's system was accepted only by a few English grammarians of the period. But since that time the adjective came to be viewed as a separate part of speech.
Brightland's grammar was the first to include the concept of the sentence in syntax proper.
The logical definition of the sentence existed in old times, but grammarians understood the subject matter of syntax only as a study of word arrangement.
In Lily's grammar, for instance, we find three Latin concords: the nominative and the verb, the substantive and the adjective, the relative pronoun and its antecedent.
The second half of the 18th century is generally referred to as the age of the so-called prenormative grammar. The most influential grammar of the period was R. Lowth's Short Introduction to English Grammar, first published in 1762.
Lowth's approach to the study of grammar was upheld by his followers.
The first to be mentioned here is Lindley Murray's English. Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners. First published in 1795, it was then widely used in its original form and in an abridged version for many years to come. Murray's grammar was considered so superior to any then in use that soon after its appearance it became the text-book in almost every school.
The principal design of a grammar of any language, according to Lowth, is to teach us to express ourselves with propriety, to enable us to judge of every phrase and form of construction, whether it be right or not. The plain way of doing this is to lay down rules and to illustrate them by examples. But besides showing what is right, the matter may be further explained what is wrong.
In the words of Lowth, grammar in general, or Universal grammar explains the principles which are common to all languages. The Grammar of any particular language, as the English grammar, applies those common principles to that particular language.
O. Jespersen showed good judgement in observing at this point that in many cases what gives itself out as logic, is not logic at all, but Latin grammar disguised.
The early prescriptive grammars exerted an enormous influence and moulded the approach of many generations to English grammar.
Applying the principles of Universal grammar, Lowth subjected to criticism many expressions established by long use in English, such as, for instance, the use of adverbs without the suffix -ly, the expressions it is me, these kind of, or, say, such patterns as had rather, had better.
Lowth and other grammarians of that time condemned as wrong many constructions and forms which occurred in the works of the best authors. They used passages from the works of classical writers as exercises for pupils to correct bad English or "false" English.