Problems of race discrimination of the USA in the XX century
Дипломная работа - Социология
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terintheSouththanintheNorth.Basedon1860censusfigures,8%ofallwhite<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_American>malesaged13to43diedinthecivilwar,including6%intheNorthandanextraordinary18%intheSouth.Despitethis,post-emancipationAmericawasnotfreefromracism;discriminatorypracticescontinuedintheUnitedStateswiththeexistenceofJimCrowlaws<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws>,educationaldisparitiesandwidespreadcriminalactsagainstpeopleofcolor.newcenturysawahardeningofinstitutionalizedracismandlegaldiscriminationagainstcitizensofAfricandescentintheUnitedStates.Althoughtechnicallyabletovote,polltaxes<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poll_tax>,actsofterror(oftenperpetuatedbygroupssuchastheKuKluxKlan<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan>,foundedintheReconstruction<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States>South),anddiscriminatorylawssuchasgrandfatherclauses<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather_clause>keptblackAmericansdisenfranchisedparticularlyintheSouthbutalsonationwidefollowingtheHayes<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes>electionattheendoftheReconstruction<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States>erain1877.Inresponsetodejure<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_jure>racism,protestandlobbyistgroupsemerged,mostnotably,theNAACP<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NAACP>(NationalAssociationfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople)in1909.timeperiodissometimesreferredtoasthenadirofAmericanracerelations<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations>becauseracismintheUnitedStateswasworseduringthistimethanatanyperiodbeforeorsince.Segregation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_segregation>,racialdiscrimination<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_discrimination>,andexpressionsofwhitesupremacyallincreased.Sodidanti-blackviolence,includinglynchings<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynchings>andraceriots<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_riot>.addition,racismwhichhadbeenviewedprimarilyasaproblemintheSouthernstates,burstontothenationalconsciousnessfollowingtheGreatMigration<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)>,therelocationofmillionsofAfricanAmericansfromtheirrootsintheSouthernstatestotheindustrialcentersoftheNorthafterWorldWarI,particularlyincitiessuchasBoston<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston>,Chicago<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago>,andNewYork<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City>(Harlem<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem>).Innortherncities,racialtensionsexploded,mostviolentlyinChicago,andlynchings<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States>--mob-directedhangings,usuallyraciallymotivated-increaseddramaticallyinthe1920s.AsamemberofthePrinceton<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University>chapteroftheNAACP,AlbertEinstein<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein>correspondedwithW.E.B.DuBois<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois>,andin1946EinsteincalledracismAmericas"worstdisease".substantialgainsweremadeinthesucceedingdecadesthroughmiddleclassadvancementandpublicemployment,blackpovertyandlackofeducation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States>deepenedinthecontextofde-industrialization.Prejudice,discrimination,andinstitutionalracism(seebelow)continuedtoaffectAfricanAmericans.1981to1997,theUnitedStatesDepartmentofAgriculturediscriminatedagainsttensofthousandsofAfricanAmericanfarmers,denyingloansprovidedtowhitefarmersinwordscircumstances.ThediscriminationwasthesubjectofthePigfordv.Glickman<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pigford_v._Glickman>lawsuitbroughtbymembersoftheNationalBlackFarmersAssociation<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Black_Farmers_Association>,whichresultedintwosettlementagreementsof$1.25billionin1999andof$1.15billionin2009.citethe2008UnitedStatespresidentialelection<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_United_States_presidential_election>asastepforwardinracerelations:WhiteAmericansplayedaroleinelectingBarackObama<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barack_Obama>,thecountrysfirstblackpresident.However,accordingtoexitpolls,oversixtypercentofwhiteAmericansvotedforMcCain.Racialdivisionspersistedthroughouttheelection;widemarginsofBlackvotersgaveObamaanedgeduringthepresidentialprimary,where8outof10African-Americansvotedforhimintheprimaries,andanMSNBCpollshowedthatracewasakeyfactorinwhetheracandidatewasperceivedasbeingreadyforoffice.InSouthCarolina,forinstance,"WhiteswerefarlikeliertonameClintonthanObamaasbeingmostqualifiedtobecommanderinchief,likeliesttounitethecountryandmostapttocapturetheWhiteHouseinNovember.BlacksnamedObamaoverClintonbyevenstrongermargins-two-andthree-toone-inallthreeareas."thePacificStates<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_States>,racismwasprimarilydirectedagainsttheresidentAsianimmigrants.SeveralimmigrationlawsdiscriminatedagainsttheAsians,andatdifferentpointstheethnicChineseorothergroupswerebannedfromenteringtheUnitedStatesNonwhiteswereprohibitedfromtestifyingagainstwhites,aprohibitionextendedtotheChinesebyPeoplev.Hall<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People_v._Hall>.TheChinesewereoftensubjecttoharderlaborontheFirstTranscontinentalRailroad<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Transcontinental_Railroad>andoftenperformedthemoredangeroustaskssuchasusingdynamitetomakepathwaysthroughthemountains.TheSanFranciscoVigilanceMovement<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Vigilance_Movement>,althoughostensiblyaresponsetocrimeandcorruption,alsosystematicallyvictimizedIrishimmigrants,andlaterthiswastransformedintomobviolenceagainstChineseimmigrants.Anti-ChinesesentimentwasalsorifeinearlyLosAngeles,culminatinginanotorious1871riotinwhichamobcomprisingeveryothernationalitythenresidentinthecity.theensuinginquestsandtrials,alltheperpetratorseitherwereacquitted,orreceivedonlylightpunishmentsforlesseroffenses,becausethetestimonyofChinesewitnesseswaseithercompletelyinadmissible,orelseconsideredlesscrediblethanthatofothers.LegaldiscriminationofAsianminoritieswasfurtheredwiththepassagesoftheChineseExclusionActof1882<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_(United_States)>,whichbannedtheentranceofvirtuallyallethnicChineseimmigrantsintotheUnitedStatesuntil1943.WorldWarII,theUnitedStatescreatedinternmentcampsforJapaneseAmericancitizens<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_American_internment>infearthattheywouldbeusedasspiesfortheJapanese.Currentlyimplementedimmigrationlawsarestilllargelyplaguedwithnationalorigin-basedquotasthatisunfavorabletoAsiancountriesduetolargepopulationsandhistoricallylowU.S.immigrationrates.ofLatinAmericanancestry(oftencategorizedas"Hispanic<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic>")comefromawidevarietyofracialandethnicbackgrounds.Latinosarenotalldistinguishableasaracialminority.theMexican-AmericanWar<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican-American_War>(1846-1848),theU.S.annexedmuchofthecurrentSouthwesternregionfromMexico.Mexicansresidinginthatterritoryfoundthemselvessubjecttodiscrimination.Itisestimatedthatatleast597Mexicanswerelynchedbetween1848and1928(thisisaconservativeestimateduetolacko