История

221. the Great Sailor
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

French. The ruler of France was then the Emperor Napoleon. He wished to make himself ruler of the whole world. With his armies Napoleon made himself ruler over many lands, but he never ruled Britian. Why was this? Britian was an island, and the ships of the British navy would not let Napoleon and his In 1805 a great war was fought between the British and the armies cross the sea. The greatest of all the British sailors at this time was Horatio Nelson.
222. The history of Australia
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

The first contingent of the convicts and their guards landed where Sydney stands today, on January 26, 1788. It was the so-called “First Fleet” and these people were called “first fleeters” Now, Australia Day, January 26, commemorates the landing. Gradually more and more people arrived (they were convicts as well as free settlers) and a number of settlements were founded along the southern and eastern coasts. For the first few years, the colonists were almost entirely dependent on food supplies from overseas but gradually the land around the settlements was brought under cultivation. Soils were generally poor and crop yields low, but better agricultural land was soon found near Parramatta, to the west. Exploratory voyages were also made along the east coast. The boldest was that of Captain Matthew Flinders who, in 1802-1803 circumnavigated the continent.
223. The history of England can be defined as the gradual process of Parliament asserting its authority over the monarchy
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

The Stuart monarchs who succeeded Elizabeth try to impose absolutism and to rule by “divine right”. But the English Parliament, asserting its ancient rights and privileges, challenged them. The result was a struggle that lasted through the better part of the seventeenth century, culminating in the victory of Parliament over the kings. In the age when absolutism triumphed almost everywhere, England was the striking exception of the rule. Growing opposition to the Stuarts centered in Parliament. The Stuarts disliked Parliament, but were dependent upon it because only the House of Commons had the right to levy taxes. The Stuarts insisted they had absolute authority to follow whatever policies they chose. The conflict between Parliament and the king came to a climax under Charles I (king 1625-1649). In 1626 Charles found himself at war with both France and Spain. Parliament refused to grant new taxes until it had had “redress of grievances”. Led by Sir John Eliot, the members of Commons finally forced Charles to sign the “Petition of Right” in 1628. This pact guaranteed certain rights of Parliament and of individual Englishmen against their king.
224. The impact of the French Revolution on the European system
Доклад пополнение в коллекции 14.04.2010

French Revolution was very complex event which raises so many different and contradictory assessments. Many different groups of people of various public movements, different classes have tried to find a better life for themselves and their own way to resolve issues of justice and freedom through revolution. Tremendous passion of people to free themselves from the oppression of the rich, from the injustice cannot not to evoke sympathy. How to make all of them free, happy and prosperous? Even Rousseau, Helvetius, Mably, Diderot, and others consider an inequality of states and the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few people the major obstacle to the establishment of democratic freedom. And in the years of revolution, these attitudes began to speak with greater force. Many of the Revolutionists maintained that equality of political rights is nothing, if not right in practice. The latter, said Condorcet, represents "the latest target of public art", since the inequality of wealth, inequality of states and inequality of education - the main premise of all evil. A very common formula the first years of the revolution: "Big states represent an obstacle to freedom." In large cities, people in the needs of life itself first appeared communist ideas. Chief among them: the distribution of means of subsistence and the general membership on the ground, as well as the right to education for all. It was assumed, along with the right of all the products and the products of the first and second necessity, as a personal right to surplus (Karlyle, 2002).
225. The Impact the Civil War 1861-1865 on Economic, Politic and Industry Development in the USA
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

That victory launched the era of congressional Reconstruction (usually called Radical Reconstruction), which lasted 10 years starting with the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. Under that legislation, the 10 remaining Southern states (Tennessee had been readmitted to the Union in 1866) were divided into five military districts; and, under supervision of the U.S. Army, all were readmitted between 1868 and 1870. Each state had to accept the Fourteenth or, if readmitted after its passage, the Fifteenth Constitutional Amendment, intended to ensure civil rights of the freedmen. The newly created state governments were generally Republican in character and were governed by political coalitions of blacks, carpetbaggers (Northerners who had gone into the South), and scalawags (Southerners who collaborated with the blacks and carpetbaggers). The Republican governments of the former Confederate states were seen by most Southern whites as artificial creations imposed from without, and the conservative element in the region remained hostile to them. Southerners particularly resented the activities of the Freedmen's Bureau, which Congress had established to feed, protect, and help educate the newly emancipated blacks. This resentment led to formation of secret terroristic organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camelia. The use of fraud, violence, and intimidation helped Southern conservatives regain control of their state governments, and, by the time the last Federal troops had been withdrawn in 1877, the Democratic Party was back in power.
226. The Industrial Revolution
Информация пополнение в коллекции 30.08.2006

The process of industrialization in England and on the Continent created an enlargement of the middle classes, e.g. the merchants, bankers, etc. Therefore, it became increasingly difficult for the conservative landowning aristocrats and monarchs to retain their power over society. The term liberalism was first used in England in around 1819. Liberal ideas of freedom of trade, freedom of speech etc. were largely shaped by the French Revolution, as were most other political doctrines. Both the advancement of the political doctrine of liberalism and the political ideas themselves were different in every country of Europe. The liberals of Britain and France were the most influential, therefore, I shall focus this essay predominantly on their influence, until the year 1832, on their respective countries in order to answer the question to what extent their influence was different. In the first chapter, I will deal with the political and economical ideologies 'all' liberals have in common. The next chapter will elaborate to what extent those liberalist ideas influenced society in France, until 1830. In the third, I will discuss the influence of liberalism in Britain up to the year 1832. Classical Liberalism: The ideologies of liberalism varied extensively in Europe from country to country, but there were also many similarities in their works of society. Liberals worked men to be desirous for increasingly more property and respect of others, because liberals believed that the only way to get ahead in life was to gain property and respect, for the more property the better position in society. Liberals recognized that there was a need for some minimum form of government, otherwise there would be the inconvenience of every man having to be his own judge and policeman, but it would not need to be a very strong government. Government was only to restrain occasional transgressors; it was to protect the propertied against the non-propertied. Since the people also needed to be protected from an arbitrary or absolutist government, the government should be under the ultimate control of the propertied. Therefore, there should remain the power to remove or alter the legislative power, when it acts contrary to the trust that was placed in it. In other words, liberals believed in the ability of self-government and self-control, because they considered man to be rational in that man was capable of making independent decisions about his life. However, they did acknowledge the need for a weak government. This government was to be a constitutional monarchy, in which freedom of the press, freedom of speech, free rights of assembly, religion, and freedom to dispose over private property would be preserved in the best possible way. They were convinced that the legislative and the executive branch of government should be separate and that their actions should be mutually restrictive (based on the idea of "checks and balances" by John Locke). As stated previously, they were also convinced of the idea that only male property owners should be allowed to vote, because they had a stake in society. How much property was needed to be eligible to vote was a hot topic of debate amongst liberals all over Europe. Liberals were not democrats in that they supported the idea of universal male suffrage, for they feared the excesses of mob rule. However, they did believe that every adult male should have the opportunity to accumulate property to become eligible to vote and that all men were equal before the law. A liberal slogan was that careers should be open to the talents. None of the liberals in Europe was in favor of the unification of laborers into labor unions for it would be an artificial interference with the natural laws - supply and demand, diminishing returns - of the market. Moreover, liberals advocated an economy of "laissez faire", i.e. free trade; to be achieved by getting rid of or at least lowering the tariffs. They were of the opinion that free trade would be beneficial to all the countries involved, for with free trade, it would be easier to exchange goods. Consequently, each country would produce what it was most suited for, thereby increasing the country's standard of living and general wealth. The doctrine of liberalism was generally supported by men of business, bankers, merchants, the new capitalists ("the cotton lords"), who owed their position to their own hard work and intelligence; they were "self-made" men, who would do anything to increase their property within the means proved by the law, but not beyond. Some progressive landowners that wanted to improve their property joined these mostly 'new' classes in their support of liberalism. Contrary to what one might think, most liberals were, to a certain extent, concerned with the situation of the workers. They created several possibilities for the workers to obtain their own property: "savings banks, mutual benefit societies, and institutions of technical and vocational education" (Sperber; p66). There was one field, however, in which the liberals did favor strong governmental activity: the field of public education. They believed that well organized effective public education would create a strong society of male property owners who had a voice in public affairs. The influence of liberalism in France: In France, problems arose when Charles X became king in 1824. The reforms that were instituted after the constitution of 1814 were reversed. The Catholic clergy started to reclaim their rights to the control of public education. Sacrilegious behavior became increasingly more prohibited by law; e.g. sacrilege in church buildings became punishable by death. A strong opposition began to rise against these extreme actions by the reactionary government. In March 1830, the Chamber of Deputies - led by Lafitte and Casimir-Pйrier - passed a vote of no confidence in the government. The king retorted by proclaiming that new elections were to be held after he had dissolved the Chamber. According to the result of the new elections, previous actions made by the king were to be rejected. On his own authority king Charles, infuriated by this outcome, now issued four decrees, on July 26 1830. The first ordinance contained the order to dissolve the newly elected Chamber immediately, before its first meeting. The second proclaimed the institution of governmental censorship on all forms of press. Another reduced the right to vote in such a way that none of the bourgeois classes retained their suffrage. It concentrated all the political power back into the hands of the conservative aristocrats. The last decree called for new elections on the basis of the previous three decrees. On July 27, 1830, the July Revolution broke out in Paris. It were the republicans, mostly consisting of students, other intelligentsia, and working-class leaders, that undertook action, because they saw their chance to achieve their ideal of universal male suffrage. Strangely, it was not the upper-middle class that acted although they were the ones brutally deprived of their right to vote the day before. For three days, Paris was the stage of popular revolt. Charles X stepped down and fled to England, because he did not want to be taken captive by the angry revolutionists, the army refused to defend him against. After the abdication of Charles X, the liberals still wanted to continue with the existing system of constitutional monarchism, but with a king they could trust, which is completely in line with their work of government of constitutional monarchism, shown in the first chapter. However, they did liberalize it in that there was to be no more absolutism, the Chamber of Peers would be no longer be hereditary, and the Chamber of Deputies would be elected by a doubled electoral body (from 100,000 to 200,000). The Chambers agreed that the new king would be the Duke of Orlйans, proposed by Marquis de Lafayette, who was crowned on August 7, 1830. The upper-bourgeoisie - merchants, bankers, and industrialists - benefited most from the new system. To them, this new system was to be the end of political progress. After the revolution of 1830, liberalism became the governmental doctrine that was only interested to preserve the status quo. Liberalism in Britain: In England the Tory government had already begun to liberalize in the decade preceding the July Revolution in Paris. The Tory party had reduced tariffs and allowed British colonies to trade with countries other than Britain. Skilled workers were now permitted to emigrate and industrial manufacturers could export machinery, thus revealing British industrial secrets. These measures came very close to the liberal ideal of free trade. The Tories did not only liberalize the economy, but they had also started to reform some social aspects of society as well, notably in the direction of freedom of religion. Permitting Protestants to hold and run for public office had extensively reduced the power of the Church of England. From now on Catholics received the same rights as others. The introduction of an official police force, that was to keep protests, angry crowds, and occasional riots under control, was unprecedented in any European country. The main injustice in Britain, at that time, was the unequal distribution of representation of the people in the House of Commons. "It was estimated that in about 1820 less than 500 men, most of them members of the House of Lords, really selected the majority of the House of Commons". As a consequence, of the Industrial Revolution the population was shifting considerably to the north, while the population used to be concentrated predominantly in the south. However, no new boroughs (urban centers having the right to elect members of Parliament) had been created, since 1688, to the displeasure of the northern industrial urban centers. In 1830, probably influenced by the July Revolution in Paris, the issue of reforming the House of Commons was raised again by the minority party, the Whigs. As an answer to the enormous outburst by the Duke of Wellington, in defense of the existing system, a Whig ministry took over the government. Unfortunately, the bill failed to pass the Commons and the ministry resigned. Fearing popular revolt, the Tories refused to form a new government. The Whigs returned and now the bill did pass the House of Commons, but it stranded in the House of Lords. The country was on the eve of a revolution if the bill would not become law. The Whigs went to the king with this argument trying to persuade him to create enough new Lords to change the majority of the House of Lords in favor of the Whigs. The Lords surrendered and they approved the bill. In April 1832, the bill finally became law. The new law was a typical British creation. In stead of adopting the new ideas of the French - that each representative should represent approximately the same number of voters - they preferred to make some alteration in the existing system. The property owners and their principal employees - doctors, lawyers, etc.- would under the new law, elect the members of the House of Commons. The new law came down to the redistribution of votes, not to a substantial enlargement of the electoral body (from 500,000 to about 813,000). Conclusion: In my opinion, the influence of the liberals in France should have been far greater than that of the liberals in England, because the liberals in France had obtained the control over the government. Therefore, it would seem to be easier for them to institute legal measures to benefit their political and economical ideologies. However, they refused to adopt and implement the successful English policies. Consequently, the main difference between the two countries remained that England continued to flourish and easily be the leader of the world economy. In England, the control of government by the Tory party, after 1832, reduced the influence of capitalism on society. Consequently, legislation was passed to somewhat protect the workers against the continuing lust for profit of their employers. This contrary to France where only the most well to do were in control of politics not much was done to relieve the condition of labor. Concluding I believe that, in England, even though the liberals did not have direct influence on the course of politics, English society did come very close to some of the liberal ideals, e.g. constitutional monarchy, emigration of skilled workers, colonies trading with other countries, etc. It is, therefore, fair to say that, although the liberals did not have the direct influence on public policies, the influence exerted by the liberalist ideologies was far greater than in France.
227. The life and work of the self-employed socialist intellectual, Humphrey McQueen
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 20.06.2010

All the radical, broadly based and rather multi-tendency and heterogenous student and youth movements eventually disintegrated in ways that were often unique to the particular ideological current. The Maoist movement evolved in a particular way. The powerhouse of the Maoist youth movement was the Bakery premises in Prahran. The form of organisation became the Worker Student Alliance, and the WSA became quite a powerful force in the youth movement in both Melbourne and Adelaide. The connections between the Worker Student Alliance and the Communist Party of Australia (Marxist-Leninist), which had been set up by Ted Hill and the Maoist union officials who had broken away from the old Communist Party of Australia in 1963, were rather tenuous. The Maoist theory of the party concentrated mainly on the conspiratorial and underground side of political activity, and in practice this made the CPA(ML) a very shadowy kind of organisation. Several of the Maoist student leaders commented later that they had been on the CPA-ML Central Committee without even being informed of it! In the late 1980s, Barry York and John Herouvim wrote a fairly detailed account of the political atmosphere and political style of the Maoist youth movement published in Arena and other places, and this material is of considerable interest.
228. The Plantagenet Dynasty in the History of Great Britain
Курсовой проект пополнение в коллекции 23.08.2006
1. Stubbs William The early Plantagenets. London(a.o.0, Longmans, Green and co., 1909. 43p.
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6. Henderson Philip Richard, Coeur de Lion. A biography. Lnd. Hale 1958.10p.
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13. Цингейт Филиппа Королевские династии: учебное пособие для дополнительного образования Москва, Росмэн, 1997. 249-256p.
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229. The post-war period and the Cold War
Информация пополнение в коллекции 25.03.2012

By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev> became General Secretary <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union> in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perestroika>, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_quota> system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost>, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_party> and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee>. Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating dйtente <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente> between the two nations.response to the Kremlin's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race. The first was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva>. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second Reykjavнk Summit <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit> was held in Iceland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland>. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated: Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty> (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush> signed the START I <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/START_I> arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognized as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine> that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Eastern Europe.1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany> to German reunification <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification>, the only alternative being a Tiananmen <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989> scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "Common European Home <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_European_Home>" concept began to take shape.December 3, 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush>, declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_Summit>; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War> against Iraq <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq>.1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact> states were losing power. In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union> was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power.the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering "nationalities question" increasingly led the Union's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states> withdrawing from the Union entirely. The 1989 revolutionary wave <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989> that swept across Central and Eastern Europe overthrew the Soviet-style communist states, such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania being the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.'s permissive attitude toward Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_1991_events_in_Latvia> and Lithuania <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_Events>, privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. [253] <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War> The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt> and a growing number of Soviet republics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union>, particularly Russia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic>, who threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States>, created on December 21, 1991, is worked as a successor entity to the Soviet Union <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union> but, according to Russia's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce" between the Soviet Republics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union> and is comparable to a loose confederation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation>. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on December 25, 1991.
230. The Radicalism of the American Revolution
Информация пополнение в коллекции 27.09.2006

Nonetheless, it is important to point out, as progressive ideas extended by means of pamphlets, political tracts and books, the American colonists paid attention to republican ideals and started their questioning of communal and political divisions. The republicanism manifesting itself in accepted colonial society resulted in the final termination of close and strong bonds to the monarchy. Presenting the republicanism of colonial society, Professor Wood disputes that such newly born ideas attained radical significance by providing a perceptive and significant defy to the monarchical system. Though, the author says, the move forwards for independence advanced uncertainly to some extent, it symbolized thus far the culmination of a new social optimism resonating now and then within the colonial population, including also revolutionary leaders themselves that is also very important to state. Wood also pays much attention to the Democracy. He considers that such political phenomenon existed in absolute opposition to the monarchical organization of the society. Despite the fact that democracy brought to the reality many of the ideals proposed by the founding fathers, Professor Wood believes that its ultimate and absolute shape represented a higher grade of equality unexpected and possibly even unpredicted by the revolutionary leaders. However, to make such conclusion randomly is impossible. That is why Wood carries out a comprehensive research on the reorganization of American society that had taken place since the War for Independence. The author also speaks about the developing role of government within the society and the involvement of common people in state affairs. Professor Wood says that it symbolized a radical concept change. According to Wood, American individualism was an inevitable result of the possibility of social mobility. Furthermore, the development of commerce and suspension of conventional relationships serve as the evidence to verify this claim. Consequently, by describing the progression of the young American state, Wood asserts that a radical break was the result not only of the American Revolution, but possibly was achieved trough greater domination of the radical intellectual ideas of the time in the course of development.
231. The Renaissance
Информация пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

Towards the middle of the 16th century common people were already striving for knowledge and the sons of many common citizens managed to get an education. The universities began to breed many learned men who refused to become churchmen and wrote for the stage. These were called the "University Wits", because under the influence of their classical education they wrote after Greek and Latin models. Among the "University Wits" were Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Sackville, John Lyly, George Peele, Roberk Greene, Thomas Kyd and Thqmas Nashe; Christopher Marlowe being the most distinguished of them. The new method of teaching classical literature at the universities was to perform Roman plays in Latin, Later the graduates translated these plays into English and then they wrote plays of their own.
232. The republic referendum in Australia
Сочинение пополнение в коллекции 20.06.2010

There were some striking but significant local idiosyncracies. Often distinctively individual, slightly isolated communities, with a strong local identity and a larger old, established Anglo component, seemed to vote heavily No. Two examples that jumped out at me were Kurnell in Sutherland Shire, which voted almost two thirds No in fairly sharp contrast with the rest of that electorate, where the No vote was lower. Another striking example was Riverstone-Schofields, an old working-class, largely Anglo community, where the meat works was closed some years ago, which showed a No vote approaching 70 per cent, much higher than the No vote in the rest of that electorate, a Labor electorate, where Yes did quite well in the other areas.
233. The Union Jack
Информация пополнение в коллекции 09.12.2008

In the seventeenth century the flag underwent several changes. After the execution of Charles I in 1649, Oliver Cromwell the Lord Protector introduced a special Commonwealth flag consisting of St George's cross and the gold harp of Ireland. When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reintroduced the Union Flag of James I.
234. TOP 10 нанопродуктов 2004
Информация пополнение в коллекции 12.01.2009

Бытовые применения нанотехнологий начались с продуктов Cerax Nanowax и текстиля Nano Tex. Nanowax является первым в мире продуктом, использующим химическую нанотехнологию, создающую «умную» поверхность покрытия с многофункциональными свойствами. Воск способствует хорошему скольжению поверхности лыжи. Это ультратонкое покрытие, которое работает намного дольше, чем традиционные средства, которые, как правило, очень быстро исчезают. «Умный» Nanowax застывает при низкой температуре, сливается с поверхностью лыжи и скользит по кристалликам снега. Nanowax имеет разнообразные типы для различных видов зимнего спорта, для разных погодных условий, а также для различного уровня профессиональной подготовки спортсмена. Появились некоторые солнцезащитные стекла марки Smith, использующие технологические разработки Американской компании Nanofilm, разработанной Сase Western Reserve University. Nanofilm, используя методы нанотехнологии, наносит очень тонкие слои полимера, что дает стеклам покрытие, препятствующее отражению света, и защищает глаза от ультрафиолетового излучения. Nanofilm использует покрытие толщиной в 150 нанометров (20 микрон). Для его нанесения используется химическая самосборка, чтобы придать покрытию правильную молекулярную структуру слой полимера от трех до десяти нанометров толщиной, на внешней стороне линзы. Это не только предотвращает попадание грязи и кожного жира на стекло, но и делает линзы более удобными для глаз.
235. U.S. - Soviet relations
Дипломная работа пополнение в коллекции 22.08.2006

Such suffering provided the backdrop for a bitter controversy over whether the United States and Britain were doing enough to assume their own just share of the fight. Roosevelt understood that Russia's battle was America's. "The Russian armies are killing more Axis personnel and destroying more Axis materiel," he wrote General Douglas MacArthur in 1942, "than all the other twenty-five United Nations put together." As soon as the Germans invaded Russia, the president ordered that lend-lease material be made immediately available to the Soviet Union, instructing his personal aide to get $22 million worth of supplies on their way by July 25one month after the German invasion. Roosevelt knew that, unless the Soviets were helped quickly, they would be forced out of the war, leaving the United States in an untenable position. "If [only] the Russians could hold the Germans until October 1," the president said. At a Cabinet meeting early in August, Roosevelt declared himself "sick and tired of hearing . . . what was on order"; he wanted to hear only "what was on the water." Roosevelt's commitment to lend-lease reflected his deep conviction that aid to the Soviets was both the most effective way of combating German aggression and the strongest means of building a basis of trust with Stalin in order to facilitate postwar cooperation. "I do not want to be in the same position as the English," Roosevelt told his Secretary of the Treasury in 1942. "The English promised the Russians two divisions. They failed. They promised them to help in the Caucasus. They failed. Every promise the English have made to the Russians, they have fallen down on. . . . The only reason we stand so well ... is that up to date we have kept our promises." Over and over again Roosevelt intervened directly and personally to expedite the shipment of supplies. "Please get out the list and please, with my full authority, use a heavy hand," he told one assistant. "Act as a burr under the saddle and get things moving!"
236. USA - Soviet Union Relations before and during the Cold War
Контрольная работа пополнение в коллекции 07.05.2011

The history of Russian-US relations is rooted in the late XVII century, when independent American states did not exist. In 1698 Peter I met in London with William Penn, founder of the British colony, which later became Pennsylvania. It was the first bilateral political contacts. In the first half of XVIII century begins active colonization of America Russian merchants. Many Russian settlements were founded in the Aleutian Islands, mainland Alaska, in what is now the Canadian provinces of Yukon and British Columbia and the U.S. states of Washington, Oregon and California. Gradually the scattered Russian settlement colony were issued legally, over the territory occupied by Russian settlers proclaimed the sovereignty of the Russian Empire. Capital of Russian America was the city New Archangel (now - Sitka). In 1775 the 13 British colonies revolt against economic oppression by the British. George III turned to the Russian Empress Catherine II with the request to assist British troops in suppressing the uprising, to which was refused. July 4, 1776 in Philadelphia, was proclaimed the independence of the colonies. Formally, Russia has not recognized this act, however, supports the desire of the colonies to independence. In 1780, at the height of the war for independence, Russia has announced an armed neutrality, is the actual support for the colonies. In 1809, Russia and the U.S. exchanged ambassadors, initiating diplomatic relations. The first U.S. ambassador to Russia, John Quincy Adams became the first Russian ambassador to the U.S. - Andrew Dashkov. In the XIX century, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Russia were friendly. Peak closer Petersburg and Washington were 1860 .- Civil War in the U.S. and the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. Then Russia and the northern U.S. states had a common foe - Britain, which supported both southerners and Polish rebels. In 1867 all Russian possessions east of the Bering Strait had been sold for 7,2 million U.S. dollars. Furthermore most of Alaska this includes the entire Aleutian archipelago and some islands in the Pacific Ocean. However, in the middle of the century, the government of Nicholas I drew American engineers in their projects of modernization of the empire. For example, experts from the United States played a crucial role in the construction of the railway between Moscow and St. Petersburg and equipping of its rolling stock, implementation of the first telegraph lines and the rearmament of the army after the Crimean War. However, in the XIX century between Russia and the United States accumulated contradictions. Nota Monroe in 1823 was awarded the first Russian ambassador - in protest against the possible intervention of the Holy Alliance in Latin America and the strengthening of the Russian settlements in California. In the years 1849-1850. leader of the Hungarian revolution Layosch Kossuth visited the United States, and found a sympathetic response in the American West. In 1850, the U.S. Senate on the initiative of Senator Lewis Cass discussed the "Resolution Cashier" on the need to judge the monarchs of Europe for the suppression of the revolutions of 1848 (First of all, as stated in the draft resolution - "the Russian Emperor."). It played an active supporter of Sen. John Parker Hell. Here he writes about the American historian Arthur Schlesinger in "Cycles of American History": "The future historian, according to Hale, could start a chapter devoted to 1850, as follows:" At the beginning of the year the U.S. Senate, the highest legislative body of the world, assembled wise and generous people who have ever lived or will live, pushing in aside trifling local matters relating to their own territories, have formed a kind of tribunal and began to court over the nations of the Earth, for causing most cruel acts of despotism. "Offer Cash, Hale continued, is that" we have acted as judges angry! "We must bring to justice the nations of the earth, they stand before us as defendants, and we will make their sentences." Superior principle. But why be limited to Austria? Hale expressed his hope that the future historian will describe how the United States started" the court is not over any a secondary power, whose trade is negligible and the sanctions which will cost a low price, but first and foremost on the Russian empire, announcing her verdict. "In the end, Kossuth defeated the Russian army." I do not agree to judge Austria, until we are sentenced to some bigger criminals. I do not want our actions to resemble fishing nets frequently to catch small fish, but miss a major. "I want to judge the Russian tsar, said Hale, not only for what he did to Hungary, but also" for what chtb he did long ago, sending poor exiled to Siberian snow ... When we do this, we show that by raising his angry voice against weaker powers, we do so not out of cowardice. " "Resolution Cashier" was not accepted. But in 1880 Congress passed a series of decisions condemning the policy of Alexander III in the Jewish question. In 1880 the U.S. finally established in the Pacific Ocean. In 1886 at the initiative of President Grover Cleveland's Congress held hearings on the subject of future U.S. policy in the Pacific Ocean. At the hearing, it was decided that of all the Pacific countries, only the Russian Empire could potentially threaten U.S. interests. In this regard, the U.S. did not support the Russian-German-French ultimatum to Japan in 1895. In 1899 the U.S. declared policy of "open door", maintaining the territorial integrity of China, primarily - due to containment of Russian advance into Manchuria and Korea. Since 1901 the administration of Theodore Roosevelt provided financial and military-technical assistance to Japan in the preparation of the Russian-Japanese war. In 1900 Russia and the United States played a decisive role in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion in China. Regularly (every ten days) to New York arriving passenger ships, Russian-American Line. In the First World War, Russia and the United States entered the Allies. Turning point for relations between the two countries began in 1917. After the Revolution in Russia, the United States refused to recognize the Soviet government. In 1918-1920 years, American troops took part in a foreign intervention, while supporting the White Army. U.S. has become one of the last states to recognize the Soviet Union. In 1919 the U.S. was deployed against communist and socialist movements - banning the left-wing organization, expelled from the country's dangerous, according to authorities, the person. Diplomatic relations between the Soviet Union and the United States have been set on Nov. 16, 1933. Among other events of this period, important for bilateral relations can note the participation of Americans in the rescue "Chelyuskin in 1934 (two U.S. aircraft mechanics have been awarded the Order of Lenin for that), and Valery Chkalov flight over the North Pole from Moscow to Vancouver in 1937. During the Second World War, relations between the U.S. and the USSR were moderately good. The German attack on June 22, 1941 The Soviet Union has caused among the American people a wave of respect and sympathy for the Soviet Union, almost single-handedly resisting fascist aggression. Solution Roosevelt in November 1941 the USSR had been circulated law the Lend-Lease Act, under which the Soviet Union were supplied U.S. military equipment, property and food prices. But the union treaty between the USSR and the U.S. (as between the USSR and the UK) has been signed. USA and the USSR were allies on the basis of an international instrument - the United Nations Declaration of January 1, 1942. Later on June 23, 1942 was signed by the Soviet-American agreement on deliveries of military technologies. United States, referring to the text of the Atlantic Charter of 1941, refused to recognize the Baltics part of the Soviet Union. The U.S. Congress also regularly raised the issue of religious freedoms in the Soviet Union. Agreement between the members of the anti-Hitler coalition, made during and after the war, is to create a bipolar world in which the union leadership in the West opposed the U.S. unit of the socialist countries rallied around the Soviet Union. At the end of World War II the USSR became a powerful superpower whose influence extended from Western Europe to the Pacific Ocean. Establishment of Eastern European states pro-Soviet communist regime led to a sharp deterioration in relations between the USSR and the USA. American leaders sought to prevent the spread of Soviet influence and leftist ideas (aided by the victory of the Soviet Union in the war) further west, in Latin America, Asia and Africa. In the U.S. started the anti-communist hysteria - the so-called "witch hunt". Very soon, the struggle between two ideologies, went beyond diplomatic relations and developed into a global confrontation with the system now and then flashing armed conflicts around the world - the Korean War, Vietnam War, many Arab-Israeli wars, the wars in Latin America, the Middle East and Africa . An important factor in the relations of the Soviet Union and the United States has become an arms race. Since August 1945 the United States considers itself a monopoly on the possession of nuclear weapons and tried to use this trump card against the USSR. But in 1949 the Soviet Union also got atomic, and in 1953 - a thermonuclear weapon, and then - and the means of delivering these weapons to targets on the territory of his potential opponent (ballistic missiles). Both countries have invested huge funds in the defense industry, the total nuclear arsenal for decades has grown so much that it would be enough to destroy the entire population of the planet than a dozen times. Already in the early 1960's the United States and the Soviet Union on the brink of nuclear war when the Soviet Union in response to placement in Turkey of U.S. medium-range missiles placed its own nuclear missiles in Cuba that led to the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. Fortunately, thanks to the political will of John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev, military conflict was avoided. But besides the danger of nuclear war, arms race threat carried the U.S. economy and the USSR. Permanent essentially meaningless, the increase in the armed forces threatened the economic collapse on both sides. In this situation, and signed several bilateral agreements that limit the accumulation of nuclear weapons. In the 1970's. conducted negotiations on limiting strategic arms, which resulted in the treaties were signed the SALT-I (1972), which included the ABM Treaty and SALT-II (1979) to limit missile launchers. June 1, 1990 an agreement was signed between the USSR and the USA on the maritime boundary (the Agreement on the lines of the Baker-Shevardnadze) under which the U.S. withdrew part of the exclusive economic zone of the USSR and the area of the continental shelf area of 46.3 thousand square kilometers in the open central Bering Sea, as well as territorial waters in a small area in the Bering Strait between the islands Ratmanova (Russia) and Kruzenstern. Acute political, economic, ideological and ethnic crisis in the Soviet Union by the end of 1980, led to the collapse of the state. Many conservative American politicians are inclined to ascribe this regard; the United States win the Cold War. Anyway, the disintegration of the USSR (and preceding the collapse of the socialist system) is considered to be the end of the Cold War and the beginning of a new relationship between.
237. Varieties of capitalism in the globalizing world
Информация пополнение в коллекции 13.01.2011
1. www.polit.nnov.ru
2. www.kontinent.org
3. www.wikipedia.org
4. О множественности моделей капитализма см.: Crouch C . Capitalist Diversity and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
5. David Coates, “Models of Capitalism: growth and stagnation in the modern era”
6. Models Of Capitalism, “Debating Strengths And Weaknesses”
7. Федотова В.Г. Глобальный капитализм: три великие трансформации: социально-философский анализ взаимоотношений экономики и общества
8. http://www.ashgate.com/pdf/SamplePages/Globalization_The_Juggernaut_of_the_21st_Century_Intro.pdf
9. http://www.patriotica.ru/enemy/arin_kapkan.html
238. VIII – IX века в истории славянства. Культура, религия и быт
Информация пополнение в коллекции 31.07.2006

В родовых общинах Древнерусского государства главой родовой общины являлся отец. Но каким же образом поддерживается единство рода если умрет его глава? Оно поддерживалось восстановлением отеческой власти, один из старших родичей занимал отеческое место. Одна из старых песен говорит: “Когда умрет глава рода, то все дети сообща владеют имением, выбравши себе из роду своего владыку ”. Часто деревня состоит из одного рода который управляется сам собой и сообщается с высшими властями государства посредством своего главы, старшины. Этот старшина не всегда бывает физически старшим в роде он избирается в свою должность собранием всех родичей, которые торжественно сажают его на первое место под иконы откуда и в древней нашей истории сохранился обряд и выражение посадить князя. Избранный старшина управляет всеми работами, хранить общественную казну, вносит подати, раздает своим детям и братьям пищу и одежду, наказывает их за проступки; в большие праздники он напоминает о древнем значении владыки рода, как жреца, потому что окруженный всеми родичами он кадит иконы. Последующая история Рюрикова княжеского рода показывает, что и в быте наших восточных славян имели место те же самые явления: старший брат обыкновенно занимал место отца для младших. К старшинству последнего родичи привыкали еще при жизни отца: обыкновенно в семье старший сын имеет первое место по отце, пользуется большей доверенностью последнего, является главным исполнителем его воли; в глубокой старости отца заступает совершенно его место в управлении семейными делами; отец при смерти обыкновенно благословляет его на старшинство после себя, ему поручает семью. Таким образом, по смерти отца старший брат, естественно, наследует старшинство, становится в отца место для младших. Младшие братья ничего не теряли с этою переменою: старший имел обязанность блюсти выгоды рода, думать и гадать об этом, иметь всех родичей как душу; права его состояли в уважении, которые оказывали ему как старшему; к нему относились во всех делах касающихся рода; без его ведома и согласия ничего не делалось, он был распорядителем занятий, раздатчиком пищи и одежды, он судил и наказывал, но все эти распоряжения получали силу только при общем согласии, когда все видели, что старший поступает с ними как отец, соблюдает строгую справедливость. Власть и сила старшего основывалась на согласии младших, это согласие было для старшего было единственным средством к деятельности, в следствии чего младшие были ограждены от насилия старшего, могущего действовать только через них. Но легко понять какие последствия могла иметь такая неопределенность прав и отношений: невозможно чтобы младшие постоянно согласно смотрели на действия старшего. Каждый младший, будучи недоволен решением старшего, имел возможность восстал против этого решения. Он уважал старшего брата как отца, но когда старший брат, по его мнению поступал с ним не как брат, не как отец, не по родственному, но как чужой даже как враг, то этим самым родственные отношения между ними рушились, рушились вместе все права и обязанности ничем другим не определенные. Если большинство братьев принимало сторону старшего, то последний должен был или покориться общей воле, или выйти из рода, но могло получиться и так что сторону младшего принимали другие братья отсюда усобицы и распадения рода. Если же все братья принимали сторону младшего против старшего то последний должен был или исполнить их волю, или выйти из рода который избирал другого старейшину.
239. Vladimir Ilyich Lenin
Информация пополнение в коллекции 22.06.2010

It is hаrd tо undеrstаnd why Vlаdimir Ilyich Ulyаnоv, this sеriоus аnd-аs thе futurе wаs tо shоw-аctivе mаn, аvоidеd аny pоliticаl cоmmitmеnt fоr fivе оr six yеаrs. Tо еxplаin why Lеnin wаitеd, wе nееd tо grаsp thе nаturе оf Nаrоdism, thе intеrrеlаtiоn оf its idеаs аnd thоsе оf Mаrxism, аnd thе dееp pаssiоns thаt thе hеrоism оf thе Nаrоdniks rаisеd in thе hеаrts оf thе yоung rаdicаls оf thе timе. Оnе hаs аlsо tо undеrstаnd thе idеоlоgicаl аltеrnаtivе tо Nаrоdism thаt wаs dеvеlоpеd аt thе timе by Plеkhаnоv, thе fаthеr оf Russiаn Mаrxism. Finаlly, thе cоmmitmеnt оf individuаls-in оur cаsе, thаt оf Vlаdimir-is аffеctеd nоt оnly by purе rеаsоn, but аlsо by thе intеrrеlаtiоn оf idеаs аnd аctiоns. Hеncе wе nееd tо grаsp thе аctuаl stаtе оf thе wоrking-clаss mоvеmеnt аt thе timе-hоw mаny strikеs tооk plаcе, аnd whеthеr thе Mаrxists оr thе Nаrоdniks hаd аny influеncе in thеm, аnd sо оn. Tо dеаl аdеquаtеly with аll this wоuld dеmаnd fаr mоrе spаcе thаn wе hаvе аt оur dispоsаl. Hоwеvеr, withоut аn undеrstаnding оf thе intеllеctuаl аnd pоliticаl strugglеs оf thе pеriоd, Lеnins dеvеlоpmеnt is nоt cоmprеhеnsiblе. His rооts wеrе dееp in thе Russiаn rеvоlutiоnаry trаditiоn оf thе prеcеding twо gеnеrаtiоns оf Nаrоdism, а trаditiоn culminаting fоr him in thе mаrtyrdоm оf Аlеxаndеr. Аn еxcursiоn intо Nаrоdism аnd Russiаn Mаrxism is thеrеfоrе unаvоidаblе. Thе pеrsоnаl еvоlutiоn оf Vlаdimir wаs clоsеly linkеd with thе еvоlutiоn оf thе Russiаn rеvоlutiоnаry intеlligеntsiа аnd thе thin lаyеr оf rеvоlutiоnаry wоrkеrs. His pоliticаl biоgrаphy is mеrgеd with thе histоry оf thе mоvеmеnt.
240. Who became kamikaze pilots, and how did they feel towards their suicide mission?
Информация пополнение в коллекции 22.08.2006

the "Typical" letters and the other, the "Unique" letters. Most of the typical letters were

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