Информация по предмету Экономика

41. The balanced scorecard (новые возможности для эффективного управления)
Другое Экономика

Как показали результаты исследования, около 50% компаний строят системы оценки эффективности, базируясь исключительно на финансовых показателях, ярким доказательством ущербности такого подхода служит корпорация Xerox, которая, являясь одной из крупнейших мировых корпораций по производству копировальной техники, в конце 1970-х годов понесла ощутимые убытки, едва не приведшие к разорению этого гиганта. Первоначально Xerox сдавала в аренду копировальные аппараты, зарабатывая на каждой копии, сделанной с их помощью. Высокие затраты на бумагу, заправку картриджей, ремонт машин, а также выбранная стратегия привели к тому, что клиенты не понимали, почему они должны нести ощутимые издержки из-за оборудования, которое плохо работает и постоянно ломается. Вместо того чтобы изменить стратегию, управляющие Xerox сосредоточились на улучшении финансовых показателей, не обращая внимания на растущее недовольство клиентов. Руководством компании было принято решение о переходе на новую стратегию, связанную с продажей техники и организацией множества сервисных центров, что, естественно, привело к существенному увеличению затрат. Данная стратегия содействовала достижению корпоративных целей, связанных с ростом прибыли и повышением рентабельности капитала, но только в краткосрочной перспективе. Вследствие того, что сервисные центры не успевали обслуживать клиентов, многим из них приходилось покупать несколько машин, тем самым приумножая финансовые результаты Xerox. Естественно, такая ситуация не могла удовлетворить большинство клиентов компании - они хотели иметь относительно недорогие аппараты, более надежные в эксплуатации и производящие более качественные копии. С приходом на рынок американских и японских конкурентов Xerox начала стремительно терять свои позиции. Новички уделяли большое внимание качеству копий, их машины были более надежными и менее дорогостоящими. Таким образом, Xerox полностью потеряла былое преимущество и была вытеснена с рынка. Только в начале 1980-х годов, с приходом нового руководства, поставившего во главу угла корпоративной стратегии улучшение качества продукции и повышение уровня удовлетворения потребностей клиентов, компании постепенно удалось частично восстановить свои позиции.
42. The basic principles of regulation by safety of econom
Другое Экономика

The main levers of management of a national economy, regions, companies and enterprises are the prices for the goods both services and taxes to the proceeds from realization of commodity production, which structure includes also proceeds from realization of services to the population, enterprises, establishments and organizations. Whether the prices should be adjusted by the state or carry spontaneous character? Стихийность ценообразования as a consequence boundless демократизации in economic activity already has proved the economic inconsistency and does not require additional substantiations of its(her) unfitness for economic activity and balanced development of economy of any country. The economically unreasonable failure(refusal) of the doctrine of participation of the state in management of economy of our country has resulted the country in a general(common) economic crisis. Galloping inflation, as a consequence of holiday of the prices in the period of the most active reorganization of the economic attitudes(relations) (1992-1999 гг.), resulted(brought) to обнищанию of basic weight of the population and bankruptcy of a significant part of the enterprises and continuing the destructive influence on economic activity of the enterprises and ability to live of the population which has received the name of "shock" therapy, отзвуки with which and till the present time do not cease, at all was not economic necessity. The price has appeared is too great for the carried out(spent) reorganization, and the results - are much lower than the initial purposes. The balanced price policy(politics) is the integral function of any civilized state, имманентно inherent to it(him) as a part whole организма. The failure(refusal) of the control, regulation and management of the prices on the goods and services actually means self-elimination of state structures from management of a national economy and therefore from government. The economy which has been released(let off) on самотек, objectively be not capable to reach(achieve) any national purpose. Besides the former purposes and former primitive ideology were quite is proved are thrown out for a board of a history, and new standard ideology, except for immense enrichment and pursuit of profit till now and is not produced. Hence, already настала it is time обнародовать national idea, which would reconcile all layers расслоившегося of a society(community) and precisely enough and, main, fairly would express interests of the state and people. The essence of national idea of the current moment, on our sight, consists in the following. The maintenance of well-being, health and safety of a nation in a harmonious combination to strengthening and further development of intelligence and духовности of the population of the country also is the simultaneously main idea, purpose both prime task of the state and society(community) as a whole. The achievement of this purpose is possible only as a result of radical reorganization of the usual system индикативного of management of a national economy, its(her) regions and branches.these conditions the question on maintenance of economic safety of the enterprises, companies, and also regions, economy and population of the country as a whole is superurgent, and on importance and sequence of national problems strongly costs(stands) on the first place. To number of major structural elements of economic safety of a national economy branches, conducting her,(it,) and companies it is necessary to attribute(relate) the following: the control for ценообразованием, sizes of wages (its(her) conformity to demand on the goods of mass consumption, measure and quality of work, and also тарифно-qualifying directory of payment of work from working up to the president developed still(even) in 2010 in institute ЦНИЭИуголь Минэнерго) and system of the taxation. For this reason it is represented to most expedient not selective, but their complex decision. First of all it concerns maintenance of steady growth and conformity between demand for the goods both services, on the one hand, and sizes of wages of the workers and pensions, with another., the initially developed and authorized tax system so strongly also is economically perfectly unreasonably overloaded диффе-ренцированными with the specifications and фондообразующими by parameters and does not correspond(meet) to tasks, facing to it(her), what even its(her) annual updatings, change and addition be not capable залатать all of its(her) hole. From 45 taxes authorized in перестроечный the period, more than half did not work, and other part worked less than half. To the present time there were 15 kinds of the taxes, but you see and this number is overestimated not less, than in 15 times. A number(line) of the taxes, not having substantial economic sense, carry out obvious деструктивную function. So, for example, the tax, working till now in a coal industry, to production of minerals (НДПИ) instead of alignment of economic conditions of economic activity of the mining enterprises by neutralization of influence of the natural factors (conditions залегания угля in недрах, quality of extracted raw material etc.) simply takes from the proceeds a part of the profit угледобывающих of the enterprises most фондоёмкой of branch and instead of involving her(it) in economic circulation by maintenance and development of working mine fund оседает by a dead cargo in недрах госбюджета, not bringing any advantage(benefit) neither coal companies, nor national economy. In result the most labour-consuming branches have no a real opportunity in time to ensure(supply) reproduction of leaving capacities and effective economic activity., taking into account, that an overall objective of a national economy as a whole is the maintenance social, intellectual both moral values of the population and national economy as a whole, including at a level of each enterprise and each coal company is the increase of well-being of the workers, the taxation by the taxes of a parameter expressing this purpose, is economically not solvent and деструктивным by the factor.one Uniform state tax at a rate of 20-25 % from the proceeds of each subject of the Russian economy suffices for normal economic activity to ensure(supply) with financing all надстроечную structure of management of the country, public health services, education, science, culture and its(her) safety. One more example that mechanical copying of foreign experience to anything useful result can not, as has found acknowledgement(confirmation) in the received results. Business that in our country a level of wages of basic weight of the workers and in доперестроечный the period in 3-4 times was lower, than in the advanced countries of Western Europe, Japan and USA, in summary reorganizations it(he) has decreased still approximately in as much time, therefore the general(common) level of pensions and wages of basic weight of the population has appeared on the order below incomes of the hired workers in the advanced countries. Technique of definition Uniform госналога instead of 45 working now (in which calculation even the skilled bookkeepers are confused till now) is extreme simple - account enough part of the budget to divide on ВВП and умножить into factor of a reserve at a rate of from 20 up to 25 % and size Uniform госналога (ЕГН) is ready. The structural analysis of economic activity shows, that manufacture of the goods for the population inside the country was reduced more, than three times, the capital investments in real sector have decreased in 5-6 times, and the export of the capital abroad in commercial interests has reached(achieved) the enormous sizes already which have exceeded the national budget of the country. It proves to be true by the following data of official statistics, tab. 1.
43. The City of London and its role as a financial centre
Другое Экономика

Assets - anything owned by an individual, company, legal body or government which has a cash value.Big Bang -a system of major changes which brought deregulation to the London Stock Exchange in 1986. Bill of Exchange - an officially signed promise to pay to the receiver of the bill, the stated at the fixed time. Bond - a certificate issued by the borrower as a receipt for a loan usually longer than 12 months; it indicates the interest rate and the date of repayment. Eurobond-an international certificate issued by the borrower for a long-term loan (from 5 to 15 years) in any European currency but not in the currency of the issuing bank.Securities-general term for stocks and shares of all types.Exchange-a market for the toll purchase of goods or securities. Stock Exchange-a market for short or long term transactions in securities . Commodity Exchange-a stable market for wholesale transactions in preferably commodities and raw materialsMoney Market-a market for money instruments with a period of validity of less than one year. Factoring- a business activity in which a company takes over the responsibility for collecting the debts of another company. Fund Management- managing investors funds on their behalf or advising investors on how to invest their funds. Financial Futures-legal contracts for the sale or purchase of financial products on a specified future date, at the price agreed in the present.Option-A contract giving the right to buy or sell financial instruments or goods for a stated period at a stated price.The London Bullion Market -The international gold and silver market in London where trade is done by a telephone or electronic links.HedgeThe purchase or sale futures contract as a temporary substitute for a transaction to be made at a later date Open-Ended Fund-A fund without a fixed number of shares Quite-edged loans -Loans issued on behalf of the Government to fund its spending.
44. The enlargement of the European Union
Другое Экономика

After a half century of Community history, Europeans still have a lot of soul-searching to do: How far could and should the Union be taken in order to maximise the strength which derives from unity, without at the same time eroding identity and destroying the individual ethos which makes the richness of our nations, regions and cultures? Can they move forward in step, thanks to the natural harmony which favours consensus between 15 countries, or should they recognise divergences of approach and differentiate their pace of integration? What are the limits of Community Europe, at a time when so many nations, starting with the new democracies of central and eastern Europe and the Balkans, along with Turkey, are asking to join the process of unification in progress? How can the people of Europe get everyone involved in the Community undertaking and give them the feeling of a European identity which complements and goes beyond fundamental solidarity?
45. The Federal Reserve System
Другое Экономика

Federal Reserve exercises considerable control over the demand for and supply of balances that depository institutions hold at the Reserve Banks. In so doing, it influences the federal funds rate and, ultimately, employment, output, and prices. Federal Reserve implements U.S. monetary policy by affecting conditions in the market for balances that depository institutions hold at the Federal Reserve Banks. The operating objectives or targets that it has used to effect desired conditions in this market have varied over the years. At one time, the FOMC sought to achieve a specific quantity of balances, but now it sets a target for the interest rate at which those balances are traded between depository institutions-the federal funds rate. By conducting open market operations, imposing reserve requirements, permitting depository institutions to hold contractual clearing balances, and extending credit through its discount window facility, the Federal Reserve exercises considerable control over the demand for and supply of Federal Reserve balances and the federal funds rate. Through its control of the federal funds rate, the Federal Reserve is able to foster financial and monetary conditions consistent with its monetary policy objectives. The Federal Reserve influences the economy through the market for balances that depository institutions maintain in their accounts at Federal Reserve Banks. Depository institutions make and receive payments on behalf of their customers or themselves in these accounts. The end-of-day balances in these accounts are used to meet reserve and other balance requirements. If a depository institution anticipates that it will end the day with a larger balance than it needs, it can reduce that balance in several ways, depending on how long it expects the surplus to persist. For example, if it expects the surplus to be temporary, the institution can lend excess balances in financing markets, such as the market for repurchase agreements or the market for federal funds. most of the 1970s, the Federal Reserve targeted the price of Federal Reserve balances. The FOMC would choose a target federal funds rate that it thought would be consistent with its objective for M1 growth over short intervals of time. The funds-rate target would be raised or lowered if M1 growth significantly exceeded or fell short of the desired rate. At times, large rate movements were needed to bring money growth back in line with the target, but the extent of the necessary policy adjustment was not always gauged accurately. Moreover, there appears to have been some reluctance to permit substantial variation in the funds rate. As a result, the FOMC did not have great success in combating the increase in inflationary pressures that resulted from oil-price shocks and excessive money growth over the decade. late 1979, the FOMC recognized that a change in tactics was necessary. In October, the Federal Reserve began to target the quantity of reserves-the sum of balances at the Federal Reserve and cash in the vaults of depository institutions that is used to meet reserve requirements-to achieve greater control over M1 and bring down inflation. In particular, the operational objective for open market operations was a specific level of non-borrowed reserves, or total reserves less the quantity of discount window borrowing. A predetermined target path for non-borrowed reserves was based on the FOMCs objectives for M1. If M1 grew faster than the objective, required reserves, which were linked to M1 through the required reserve ratios, would expand more quickly than non-borrowed reserves. With the fixed supply of non-borrowed reserves falling short of demand, banks would bid up the federal funds rate, sometimes sharply. The rise in short-term interest rates would eventually damp M1 growth, and M1 would be brought back toward its targeted path. demand for Federal Reserve balances has three components: required reserve balances, contractual clearing balances, and excess reserve balances. reserve balances are balances that a depository institution must hold with the Federal Reserve to satisfy its reserve requirement. Reserve requirements are imposed on all depository institutions-which include commercial banks, savings banks, savings and loan associations, and credit unions-as well as U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks and other domestic banking entities that engage in international transactions. Since the early 1990s, reserve requirements have been applied only to transaction deposits, which include demand deposits and interest-bearing accounts that offer unlimited checking privileges. An institutions reserve requirement is a fraction of such deposits; the fraction-the required reserve ratio-is set by the Board of Governors within limits prescribed in the Federal Reserve Act. A depository institutions reserve requirement expands or contracts with the level of its transaction deposits and with the required reserve ratio set by the Board. In practice, the changes in required reserves reflect movements in transaction deposits because the Federal Reserve adjusts the required reserve ratio only infrequently. depository institution satisfies its reserve requirement by its holdings of vault cash (currency in its vault) and, if vault cash is insufficient to meet the requirement, by the balance maintained directly with a Federal Reserve Bank or indirectly with a pass-through correspondent bank (which in turn holds the balances in its account at the Federal Reserve). The difference between an institutions reserve requirement and the vault cash used to meet that requirement is called the required reserve balance. If the balance maintained by the depository institution does not satisfy its reserve balance requirement, the deficiency may be subject to a charge. supply of Federal Reserve balances to depository institutions comes from three sources: the Federal Reserves portfolio of securities and repurchase agreements; loans from the Federal Reserve through its discount window facility; and certain other items on the Federal Reserves balance sheet known as autonomous factors. theory, the Federal Reserve could conduct open market operations by purchasing or selling any type of asset. In practice, however, most assets cannot be traded readily enough to accommodate open market operations. For open market operations to work effectively, the Federal Reserve must be able to buy and sell quickly, at its own convenience, in whatever volume may be needed to keep the federal funds rate at the target level. These conditions require that the instrument it buys or sells be traded in a broad, highly active market that can accommodate the transactions without distortions or disruptions to the market itself. market for U.S. Treasury securities satisfies these conditions. The .S. Treasury securities market is the broadest and most active of U.S. financial markets. Transactions are handled over the counter, not on an organized exchange. Although most of the trading occurs in New York City, telephone and computer connections link dealers, brokers, and customers-regardless of their location-to form a global market. Market Operations Federal Reserve Bank of New York conducts open market operations for the Federal Reserve, under an authorization from the Federal Open Market Committee. The group that carries out the operations is commonly referred to as the Open Market Trading Desk or the Desk. The Desk is permitted by the FOMCs authorization to conduct business with U.S. securities dealers and with foreign official and international institutions that maintain accounts at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The dealers with which the Desk transacts business are called primary dealers. The Federal Reserve requires primary dealers to meet the capital standards of their primary regulators and satisfy other criteria consistent with being a meaningful and creditworthy counterparty. All open market operations transacted with primary dealers are conducted through an auction process. day, the Desk must decide whether to conduct open market operations, and, if so, the types of operations to conduct. It examines forecasts of the daily supply of Federal Reserve balances from autonomous factors and discount window lending. The forecasts, which extend several weeks into the future, assume that the Federal Reserve abstains from open market operations. These forecasts are compared with projections of the demand for balances to determine the need for open market operations. The decision about the types of operations to conduct depends on how long a deficiency or surplus of Federal Reserve balances is expected to last. If staff projections indicate that the demand for balances is likely to exceed the supply of balances by a large amount for a number of weeks or months, the Federal Reserve may make outright purchases of securities or arrange longer-term repurchase agreements to increase supply. Conversely, if the projections suggest that demand is likely to fall short of supply, then the Federal Reserve may sell securities outright or redeem maturing securities to shrink the supply of balances. after accounting for planned outright operations or long-term repurchase agreements, there may still be a short-term need to alter Federal Reserve balances. In these circumstances, the Desk assesses whether the federal funds rate is likely to remain near the FOMCs target rate in light of the estimated imbalance between supply and demand. If the funds rate is likely to move away from the target rate, then the Desk will arrange short-term repurchase agreements, which add balances, or reverse repurchase agreements, which drain balances, to better align the supply of and demand for balances. If the funds rate is likely to remain close to the target, then the Desk will not arrange a short-term operation. Short-term temporary operations are much more common than outright transactions because daily fluctuations in autonomous factors or the demand for excess reserve balances can create a sizable imbalance between the supply of and demand for balances that might cause the federal funds rate to move significantly away from the FOMCs target. requirements have long been a part of Americas banking history. Depository institutions maintain a fraction of certain liabilities in reserve in specified assets. The Federal Reserve can adjust reserve requirements by changing required reserve ratios, the liabilities to which the ratios apply, or both. Changes in reserve requirements can have profound effects on the money stock and on the cost to banks of extending credit and are also costly to administer; therefore, reserve requirements are not adjusted frequently. Nonetheless, reserve requirements play a useful role in the conduct of open market operations by helping to ensure a predictable demand for Federal Reserve balances and thus enhancing the Federal Reserves control over the federal funds rate. depository institutions to hold a certain fraction of their deposits in reserve, either as cash in their vaults or as non-interest-bearing balances at the Federal Reserve, does impose a cost on the private sector. The cost is equal to the amount of forgone interest on these funds-or at least on the portion of these funds that depository institutions hold only because of legal requirements and not to meet their customers needs. burden of reserve requirements is structured to bear generally less heavily on smaller institutions. At every depository institution, a certain amount of receivable liabilities is exempt from reserve requirements, and a relatively low required reserve ratio is applied to receivable liabilities up to a specific level. The amounts of receivable liabilities exempt from reserve requirements and subject to the low required reserve ratio are adjusted annually to reflect growth in the banking system. Changes in reserve requirements can affect the money stock, by altering the volume of deposits that can be supported by a given level of reserves, and bank funding costs. Unless it is accompanied by an increase in the supply of Federal Reserve balances, an increase in reserve requirements (through an increase in the required reserve ratio, for example) reduces excess reserves, induces a contraction in bank credit and deposit levels, and raises interest rates. It also pushes up bank funding costs by increasing the amount of non-interest-bearing assets that must be held in reserve. Conversely, a decrease in reserve requirements, unless accompanied by a reduction in Federal Reserve balances, initially leaves depository institutions with excess reserves, which can encourage an expansion of bank credit and deposit levels and reduce interest rates. the 1960s and 1970s, the Federal Reserve actively used reserve requirements as a tool of monetary policy in order to influence the expansion of money and credit partly by manipulating bank funding costs. As financial innovation spawned new sources of bank funding, the Federal Reserve adapted reserve requirements to these new financial products. It changed required reserve ratios on specific bank liabilities that were most frequently used to fund new lending. Reserve requirements were also imposed on other, newly emerging liabilities that were the functional equivalents of deposits, such as Eurodollar borrowings. At times, it supplemented these actions by placing a marginal reserve requirement on large time deposits -that is, an additional requirement applied only to each new increment of these deposits. the 1970s unfolded, it became increasingly apparent that the structure of reserve requirements was becoming outdated. At this time, only banks that were members of the Federal Reserve System were subject to reserve requirements established by the Federal Reserve. The regulatory structure and competitive pressures during a period of high interest rates were putting an increasing burden on member banks. This situation fostered the growth of deposits, especially the newly introduced interest-bearing transaction deposits, at institutions other than member banks and led many banks to leave the Federal Reserve System. Given this situation, policy makers felt that reserve requirements needed to be applied to a broad group of institutions for more effective monetary control-that is, to strengthen the relationship between the amount of reserves supplied by the Federal Reserve and the overall quantity of money in the economy. Monetary Control Act of 1980 (MCA) ended the problem of membership attrition and facilitated monetary control by reforming reserve requirements. Under the act, all depository institutions are subject to reserve requirements set by the Federal Reserve, whether or not they are members of the Federal Reserve System. The Board of Governors may impose reserve requirements solely for the purpose of implementing monetary policy. The required reserve ratio may range from 8 percent to 14 percent on transaction deposits and from 0 percent to 9 percent on non-personal time deposits. The Board may also set reserve requirements on the net liabilities owed by depository institutions in the United States to their foreign affiliates or to other foreign banks. The MCA permits the Board, under certain circumstances, to establish supplemental and emergency reserve requirements, but these powers have never been exercised. the passage of the MCA in 1980, reserve requirements were not adjusted for policy purposes for a decade. In December 1990, the required reserve ratio on non-personal time deposits was pared from 3 percent to 0 percent, and in April 1992 the 12 percent ratio on transaction deposits was trimmed to 10 percent. These actions were partly motivated by evidence suggesting that some lenders had adopted a more cautious approach to extending credit, which was increasing the cost and restricting the availability of credit to some types of borrowers. By reducing funding costs and thus providing depository institutions with easier access to capital markets, the cuts in required reserve ratios put depository institutions in a better position to extend credit. reserve requirement ratios have not been changed since the early 1990s, the level of reserve requirements and required reserve balances has fallen considerably since then because of the widespread implementation of retail sweep programs by depository institutions. Under such a program, a depository institution sweeps amounts above a predetermined level from a depositors checking account into a special-purpose money market deposit account created for the depositor. In this way, the depository institution shifts funds from an account that is subject to reserve requirements to one that is not and therefore reduces its reserve requirement. With no change in its vault cash holdings, the depository institution can lower its required reserve balance, on which it earns no interest, and invest the funds formerly held at the Federal Reserve in interest-earning assets. Discount Window Federal Reserves lending at the discount window serves two primary functions. It complements open market operations in achieving the target federal funds rate by making Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions when the supply of balances falls short of demand. It also serves as a backup source of liquidity for individual depository institutions. the volume of discount window borrowing is relatively small, it plays an important role in containing upward pressures on the federal funds rate. If a depository institution faces an unexpectedly low balance in its account at the Federal Reserve, either because the total supply of balances has fallen short of demand or because it failed to receive an expected transfer of funds from a counterparty, it can borrow at the discount window. This extension of credit increases the supply of Federal Reserve balances and helps to limit any upward pressure on the federal funds rate. At times when the normal functioning of financial markets is disrupted-for example after operational problems, a natural disaster, or a terrorist attack-the discount window can become the principal channel for supplying balances to depository institutions. discount window can also, at times, serve as a useful tool for promoting financial stability by providing temporary funding to depository institutions that are having significant financial difficulties. If the institutions sudden collapse were likely to have severe adverse effects on the financial system, an extension of central bank credit could be desirable because it would address the liquidity strains and permit the institution to make a transition to sounder footing. Discount window credit can also be used to facilitate an orderly resolution of a failing institution. An institution obtaining credit in either situation must be monitored appropriately to ensure that it does not take excessive risks in an attempt to return to profitability and that the use of central bank credit would not increase costs to the deposit insurance fund and ultimately the taxpayer. ordinary circumstances, the Federal Reserve extends discount window credit to depository institutions under the primary, secondary, and seasonal credit programs. The rates charged on loans under each of these programs are established by each Reserve Banks board of directors every two weeks, subject to rework and determination by the Board of Governors. The rates for each of the three lending programs are the same at all Reserve Banks, except occasionally for very brief periods following the Boards action to adopt a requested rate change. The Federal Reserve also has the authority under the Federal Reserve Act to extend credit to entities that are not depository institutions in unusual and exigent circumstances; however, such lending has not occurred since the 1930s. Credit credit is available to generally sound depository institutions on a very short-term basis, typically overnight. To assess whether a depository institution is in sound financial condition, its Reserve Bank regularly reworks the institutions condition, using supervisory ratings and data on adequacy of the institutions capital. Depository institutions are not required to seek alternative sources of funds before requesting occasional advances of primary credit, but primary credit is expected to be used as a backup, rather than a regular, source of funding. rate on primary credit has typically been set 1 percentage point above the FOMCs target federal funds rate, but the spread can vary depending on circumstances. Because primary credit is the Federal Reserves main discount window program, the Federal Reserve at times uses the term discount rate specifically to mean the primary credit rate. Banks ordinarily do not require depository institutions to provide reasons for requesting very short-term primary credit. Borrowers are asked to provide only the minimum information necessary to process a loan, usually the requested amount and term of the loan. If a pattern of borrowing or the nature of a particular borrowing request strongly indicates that a depository institution is not generally sound or is using primary credit as a regular rather than a backup source of funding, a Reserve Bank may seek additional information before deciding whether to extend the loan. credit may be extended for longer periods of up to a few weeks if a depository institution is in generally sound financial condition and cannot obtain temporary funds in the market at reasonable terms. Large and medium-sized institutions are unlikely to meet this test. Credit credit is available to depository institutions that are not eligible for primary credit. It is extended on a very short-term basis, typically overnight. Reflecting the less-sound financial condition of borrowers of secondary credit, the rate on secondary credit has typically been 50 basis points above the primary credit rate, although the spread can vary as circumstances warrant. Secondary credit is available to help a depository institution meet backup liquidity needs when its use is consistent with the borrowing institutions timely return to a reliance on market sources of funding or with the orderly resolution of a troubled institutions difficulties. Secondary credit may not be used to fund an expansion of the borrowers assets. extended under the secondary credit program entail a higher level of Reserve Bank administration and oversight than loans under the primary credit program. A Reserve Bank must have sufficient information about a borrowers financial condition and reasons for borrowing to ensure that an extension of secondary credit would be consistent with the purpose of the facility. Moreover, under the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Improvement Act of 1991, extensions of Federal Reserve credit to an FDIC-insured depository institution that has fallen below minimum capital standards are generally limited to 60 days in any 120-day period or, for the most severely undercapitalized, to only five days. Credit Federal Reserves seasonal credit program is designed to help small depository institutions manage significant seasonal swings in their loans and deposits. Seasonal credit is available to depository institutions that can demonstrate a clear pattern of recurring swings in funding needs throughout the year-usually institutions in agricultural or tourist areas. Borrowing longer-term funds from the discount window during periods of seasonal need allows institutions to carry fewer liquid assets during the rest of the year and make more funds available for local lending. seasonal credit rate is based on market interest rates. It is set on the first business day of each two-week reserve maintenance period as the average of the effective federal funds rate and the interest rate on three-month certificates of deposit over the previous reserve maintenance period. [see 14 p.29]
46. The main principles of safety market economy
Другое Экономика

Question not idle. The reality all insists on a urgency and extreme importance of all-round consideration of this question both with social - moral, and from the economic points of work more actively. The real rate of unemployment in many conducting capitalist countries, first of all, such as USA, Germany, England, France, Japan and others stably keeps at a level from 6 до10 and more than percents(interests). In the backward countries, such as Russia (received the specified status as a result of disorder of the country and restoration of capitalism in his(its) ugliest form), Turkey, Greece, Pakistan, Afghanistan and others the actual rate of unemployment even above also tends to the further growth, that gets already menacing sizes for economic safety of the political attitudes(relations) in these countries. What economic and moral essence of unemployment how real factor of ability to live of a manpower and population as a whole?, from the economic point of work, the manpower is at all less important factor of economic development, than such natural resources as minerals (first of all petroleum, gas, coal, iron ore both ores of colour and precious metals), which value especially not renewed, constantly grows in process of their improvement, and also created by work of the man the basic industrial and non-productive funds, means of manufacture, factor of which operation comes nearer to the limit. But from among major factors of manufacture the manpower is the main and conducting factor of any industrial and non-productive activity, without which any production in general is impossible. Therefore underestimation of this factor in a national economy or especially his(its) complete ignoring speaks about not professional and simply elementary illiterate approach to economic activity, and public build, admitting essentially incomplete use of a manpower in economic activity doomed on dying off and quite proved replacement by more balanced socio economic attitudes(relations) in a society(community)., as to the population of a planet, the return tendency here is observed, namely - on a background of annually decreasing stocks of natural resources, population everyone 20 years are increased almost twice and to the present time already has exceeded an allowable level of vital resources for our planet. The prediction Malthus comes true that the population will grow constantly faster, than manufacture of products of a feed(meal) for maintenance of his(its) ability to live. The especially actively specified balance began to be broken from the moment of activization of scientific and technical revolution, which ecological consequences have rendered the extremely negative influence on a condition of natural environment(Wednesday). In this connection is reasonably interesting to remind one of bible predictions that come such time, when the people will eat dross of the ability to live, " … as dogs, swallowing waste ". Amazing concurrence to reality of our days.the present time and without that the low level of technical safety of the industrial enterprises, first of all in coal branch of Russia, has conceded the priority to observance of the requirements of economic safety of the coal companies, as independent legal persons, and population of coal regions, which has appeared the hostage of the financial crisis smoothly passing in economic and system crisis of the usual attitudes(relations) in a society(community). To avoid negative consequences proceeding recession in real sector of economy and in financial sphere of activity, despite of significant injections from the earlier saved resources stabilization of fund, will hardly be presented possible(probable) on a lot of the following objective and subjective reasons and their negative consequences., to stop growth of unemployment in branch and in the country as a whole, despite of titanic of effort of administrative structures on management of economic activity at all levels of management of economy, it was not possible, that was obvious right at the beginning recession in real sector. Opposite(on the contrary), during 2009-2011. The quantity(amount) of the unemployeds only on the official data has increased more than on 1500 thousand the man, not considering the considerably increased inflow workers from near foreign countries. The moral consequences it are simply awful. Difficultly even to itself to present, when complete forces the healthy man, the father of one or two children having on the contents the elderly of the parents and young wife, loses for the reasons, independent of him,(it,) work as a unique(sole) source of existence and by virtue of these circumstances is compelled at first to sell the habitation and everything, that in it(him) is, that any time to support the family, and then becomes homeless or criminal, as the unemployment benefit does not suffice even on payment ЖКХ, and on a feed(meal), medicine, the footwear and clothes does not remain practically anything. And such helpless on fault of the new proprietors and state of the people with each year and even quarter becomes ever more and more. Them already legions, exceeding on number army in times. Thus the criminality after growth of unemployment not only grows quantitatively, but she(it) changes also the qualitative structure and social structure. Now criminals become not only hardened repeat offenders, thieves, burglar and other chronically criminal elements, and people with maximum formation(education), workers with the large experience of industrial work, woman (mainly in young age), children and even the invalids.socio economic attitudes(relations) in a society(community) are inadmissible. Hence, on one only to this reason such public build also his(its) elite layers have no any moral right on the further existence and functioning, and clumsy attempts to keep usual of rules(situations) in a society(community) doomed on a failure. If the state be not capable to carry out reforming economic activity from above, naturally and inevitably reforming from below will follow. The historical development not only Russia, but also many other countries of Europe and world repeatedly proved validity of this law of public development of civilizations.state bodies of authorities admitting a high level of unemployment, corruption and other criminality have no any moral right to be and further at authority, therefore owe or accept urgent and resolute measures on liquidation of unemployment and its(her) constant companion - criminality, or to leave in a resignation and to concede these places to anothers, more qualified, ideologically sustained and morally steady experts capable to organize work in the country so that to involve resolutely all basic resources in the country, first of all human, natural, industrial both non-productive basic and circulating capitals for release of commodity production in volumes and quality ensuring need(requirement) of the population of the country. The economists of many countries of the world already for a long time and repeatedly enough is proved asserted(approved), that the presence even of insignificant unemployment speaks about inability and inability of the state to operate economy of the country. The most advanced experts in the field of economy and philosophy confidently both enough is proved and convincingly speak, that if in the country there is even one the not working citizen longer, the government of such country has no any moral, socio economic and even of the legal right and further to operate this country and owes immediately or accept urgent and resolute measures to employment of such citizens, or submit to a resignation, but keep unemployment in the country it does not owe by definition.in it our state is high time and his(its) administrative structures with Olympic calmness look at mass growing disaster of a significant part of the population and prepare the new reports and messages to the people about growing well-being of a nation. That can be even worse, than growing rate of unemployment and poverty of huge weight of a manpower of the country in its(her) base regions ensuring an industry and the population by a heat, light, electrical energy, grain, meat, fish, oil and other strategic goods on a background of such barefaced hypocrisy of the governors who have taken on the responsibility for ostensibly effective development of a national economy and well-being of the people after end of reorganization. In the richest natural resources to the country and huge means of manufacture created per the previous centuries to admit(allow) highest in the world a rate of unemployment is it is necessary to note as outstanding "achievement" in sphere of management of a national economy, and, speaking seriously, as result of inept and illiterate management of the country. Thus it is necessary to remind, that those who has not tested on itself of a rule(situation) of the unemployed, that never will understand of all tragedy of the usual hardest rule(situation) in economy and in social sphere of ability to live of coal and other industrial regions of the country. Thus also there is almost transition, not appreciable on the first sight, from recession of manufacture to recession of a manpower and population - last source of preservation of ability to live in the country. After recession in financial sphere and real sector of economy uncontrollably grows recession in intellectual and spiritual spheres of ability to live, that is less appreciable on the first sight, but much more considerably and inevitably will have an effect already in the near future literally in all spheres of ability to live of the country.it is possible to close eyes and to not see that after growth of unemployment by higher rates the criminality grows, including criminal, mass begging, teenage homelessness, growing addiction of a significant part of the growing up population, alcoholism and seksomaniya in minor age, the mass foul language, tongue-tie and not only among the deputies of State Duma, but also on radio and TV, that in general is inadmissible by definition, together with other displays of aspirations to satisfaction of the most primitive needs(requirements) Simplest by a way. A society(community), in which crime rate and the quantity(amount) of the persons ready to make of a crime exceeds an allowable limit of a parity(ratio) of criminals and ready to their fulfilment with a level of the legislative citizens dooms itself on economic, moral and intellectual collapse.unless such tendency of development spirituality and material rule(situation) in the country is not practical realization of the widely known program of the former director ЦРУ John Foster Dulles, and also in the recent past of the former prime minister of Great Britain Margaret Thatcher and former state secretary of USA Madeleine Albright, number, calling for reduction, of the Russians in Russia by 2050 up to 50 mln. The man, including Russian - up to 15 millions for service of needs(requirements) of the American elite and world(global) Jewish establishment. When the governors of the country resignedly carry out puppet functions domestic oligarchs and their nearest environment, it certainly not only extremely unpleasantly and unworthy. But in any measure is tolerant, but when to this oppression the necessity is added still to carry out the same functions also under pressure foreign oligopsony, such bends becomes simply intolerable for the population of the country, even for its(her) unlucky governors.now our chiefs can not be defined(determined) with that in any way, that now is an overall objective and basic criterion of development of our economy and our society(community).past 20 years of reforming of economy and public life in Russia already in significant volumes the need(requirement) and necessity for declaration has ripened as priority national idea maintenance in the prime order of health, safety and well-being of a nation in a harmonious and close combination to the further development of intelligence (first of all professional trainings) and spirituality of a nation, meaning under spirituality first of all education, preservation and development of such moral qualities as validity, honesty, decency, respect for work (main source of preservation of a nation), and also to the old men, women and children. Already enough has ripened and it is time to realize, to understand and to accept to execution(performance) realization real and already of operative measures on an output(exit) from financial, economic and social - political crisis, so is unexpected (in spheres of management of the country and regions) struck economy of our country, in spite of the fact that there are a lot of domestic economists not from spheres of management, and science convincingly enough and is proved predicted inevitability of approach of crisis in USA and then in other countries, not excluding and Russia. Truly prophets is not present in the fatherland and principle - wanted as better, and has left as always, became the main principle of management of economic safety in the country.the most dangerous factors of the current ability to live in the country are: corruption, mass and regular bribery at all levels of management of socio economic life in the country, merging of business with bureaucratic by the device and first of all with judicial system (already completely corrupt and fenced by bayonets of power structures), inducing complete absorption of moral principles by thirst of a profit passing in the mass order in boundless greed, absorbing the rests of high moral principles of ability to live in the country. Such system of the attitudes(relations) in a society(community) guarantees deadlock prospect of development of a nation and their next outcome by the most barbarous revolutionary way. It is necessary to note, that the main reason of arising problems in a society(community), certainly, is the change of the proprietor of means of manufacture in the beginning 90 years of the last century, that has taken place under influence and pressure as on the part of aggressive circles of USA, and own crooks and swindlers patiently waiting of the moment of easing of state authority and, being covered the democratic slogans and deceiving the population to carry out criminal commercial and social - political plans. The tolerant attitude(relation) to new bourgeoisie still could be kept, if the new owners instead of export stole of the capital abroad would put the investments in development of domestic manufacture and on improvement of a social level of the workers and pensioners, but the passion to a boundless profit can cause only new shocks and new redistribution of the property. unemployment corruption market economy
47. The teaching of Hugo Gratius
Другое Экономика

Gratius writes that his treatise is written in the defense of justice. This work on justice is as metaphysical as work on state and law. The origins of this metaphysical work are shown in the work F. Engels “To the living problem”. Looking over the emerging of state and law, Engels writes that at a certain stage of class society development complex legislation and a class of professional lawyers emerges. Together with lawyers the study of law emerges, which “in its later development compares juridical systems of different peoples and different epochs, not as reflections of economic relations but as self-explaining systems. This comparison finds similarities. The lawyers call everything more or less similar in different systems natural law. The scale that measures what is related to natural law is operating through the most abstract expression of the law justice. Since then the main goal of development of the law, in the lawyers opinion, is to draw human life conditions nearer to justice, or eternal justice. But this justice always expresses only ideological expression of existing economic relations from their conservative or revolutionary point of work. The justice of Greeks and Romans was slavery, the justice of bourgeoisie of 1789 demanded to overthrow feudalism, because it is unjust. So works on eternal justice vary not only in different places or times, but they also vary from person to person.”
48. U.S. Economy
Другое Экономика

Those levels of production, consumption, and spending make the U.S. economy by far the largest economy the world has ever knowndespite the fact that some other nations have far more people, land, or other resources. Through most of the 20th century, U.S. citizens also enjoyed the highest material standards of living in the world. Some nations have higher per capita (per person) incomes than the United States. However, these comparisons are based on international exchange rates, which set the value of a countrys currency based on a narrow range of goods and services traded between nations. Most economists agree that the United States has a higher per capita income based on the total value of goods and services that households consume. American prosperity has attracted worldwide attention and imitation. There are several key reasons why the U.S. economy has been so successful and other reasons why, in the 21st century, it is possible that some other industrialized nations will surpass the U.S. standard of living. To understand those historical and possible future events, it is important first to understand what an economic system is and how that system affects the way people make decisions about buying, selling, spending, saving, investing, working, and taking time for leisure activities.
49. Under what conditions will the oligopolists agree to co-operate in their decisions
Другое Экономика
When the firms decide to co-operate, they should implement the following policies to be able to maximize their profits.
1. They should make sure that there exists an entrance barrier to the market in which they operate in order to prevent other firms from selling a good at an old price after they increase prices for their output. If the barriers do not exist, then the increase in prices would attract other producers. The supply would then increase and prices would fall below the monopoly level, co-operating firms aim to maintain.
2. They should decide on the general pattern of production. This could be done by estimating market demand and by calculating marginal profit for all levels of production. Firms need to produce so that their MC=MR (we assume that all firms have similar production costs). The monopoly production level would maximize revenues of each of the firms (see Pic. A). The demand curve for the output is in the region of D. The marginal revenue that corresponds to that curve is MR. The monopoly production level equals to Qm, which corresponds to the point where MR crosses MC. The monopoly price equals Pm. The current price equals Pc and the current output Qc. That means that the current balance is the same as it would be under competition.
3. Each participant in co-operation agreement should have production quotas. The monopoly production Qm should be divided between all members of the treaty. For example, each firm could produce a 1/15 share of Qm per month. If all the firms had identical cost functions it would be equivalent to recommending them to balance their production till their marginal costs become equal to the market marginal revenue (MR). Until the sum of the monthly outputs of all producers equals Qm, it is possible to maintain the monopoly price.
50. VBA Платежка
Другое Экономика
1. Кнопка перехода в главную форму НАЗАД К ПЛАТЁЖКАМ
2. Двенадцать флажков на каждый месяцгода соответственно
3. Кнопка перехода в форму ПЛАТЕЛЬЩИКИ
4. Выпадающий список СПИСОК ПОЛУЧАТЕЛЕЙ
5. Выпадающий список СПИСОК ПЛАТЕЛЬЩИКОВ
6. Кнопка ЗА I-Й КВАРТАЛ для быстрого выделения флажков I-го квартала
7. Кнопка ЗА II -Й КВАРТАЛ Л для быстрого выделения флажков II-го квартала
8. Кнопка ЗА III-Й КВАРТАЛ для быстрого выделения флажков III-го квартала
9. Кнопка ЗА IV-Й КВАРТАЛ для быстрого выделения флажков IV-го квартала
10. Кнопка ЗА ГОД для быстрого выделения всех флажков года
11. Поле года отчёта
12. Кнопка ПЛЮС ГОД
13. Кнопка МИНУС ГОД
14. Кнопка сброс для снятия активизации со всех флажков месяцев
15. Скрытая кнопка удаления файлов отчёта. Кнопка появляется если имеется хоть бы один файл со старыми отчётами.
16. Справочное поле выдаёт информацию о выбранном для отчёта получателе и сформированном отчёте
17. Справочное поле выдаёт информацию о выбранном для отчёта плательщике
18. Поле РЕЗУЛЬТАТ. Сдесь выводятся итоговые данные.
19. Кнопка СФОРМИРОВАТЬ ОТЧЁТ
20. Кнопка ПРОСМОТР ОТЧЁТА
21. Кнопка ПЕЧАТЬ ОТЧЁТА
22. Кнопка СФОРМИРОВАТЬ ОТЧЁТ ПО ВСЕМ ПОЛУЧАТЕЛЯМ
23. Выпадающий список для выбора копий при печать отчёта
51. World trade organisation
Другое Экономика

The World Trade Organization came into being in 1995. One of the youngest of the international organizations, the WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in the wake of the Second World War. So while the WTO is still young, the multilateral trading system that was originally set up under GATT is already 50 years old. The system celebrated its golden jubilee in Geneva on 19 May 1998, with many heads of state and government leaders attending. The past 50 years have seen an exceptional growth in world trade. Merchandise exports grew on average by 6% annually. Total trade in 1997 was 14-times the level of 1950. GATT and the WTO have helped to create a strong and prosperous trading system contributing to unprecedented growth. The system was developed through a series of trade negotiations, or rounds, held under GATT. The first rounds dealt mainly with tariff reductions but later negotiations included other areas such as anti-dumping and non-tariff measures. The latest round—the 1986-94. Uruguay Round—led to the WTO’s creation. The negotiations did not end there. Some continued after the end of the Uruguay Round. In February 1997 agreement was reached on telecommunications services, with 69 governments agreeing to wide-ranging liberalization measures that went beyond those agreed in the Uruguay Round. In the same year 40 governments successfully concluded negotiations for tariff-free trade in information technology products, and 70 members concluded a financial services deal covering more than 95% of trade in banking, insurance, securities and financial information. At the May 1998 ministerial meeting in Geneva, WTO members agreed to study trade issues arising from global electronic commerce. The next ministerial conference is due to be held in the United States in late 1999. In 2000, new talks are due to start on agriculture and services and possibly a range of other issues.
52. WorldCom: как НЕ НАДО заниматься махинациями с отчетностью
Другое Экономика

В течение 2001 и первого квартала 2002 гг. компания записала по статье «вложения в капитальные активы» $3.8 млрд, пущенных ею на оплату текущих расходов. Разница заключается в том, что, с точки зрения бухгалтерского учета, вложения в капитальные активы отличаются от других расходов. Вложения в капитальные активы это деньги, потраченные на приобретение активов с большим сроком службы, таких как оптоволоконные линии связи или оборудование, используемое для направления телефонных звонков. Затраты на приобретение таких активов распределяются на несколько лет и погашаются с помощью амортизации. Так, если, например, WorldCom потратила $10 млн на покупку оборудования со сроком службы 10 лет, то она сможет разнести эти расходы на весь срок службы данных активов, учитывая в течение этого срока ежегодно по статье «расходы» по $1 млн. С другой стороны, потратив те же $10 млн на, скажем, перепланировку своих офисов, WorldCom была бы вынуждена учесть все эти расходы в тот же период, когда она их фактически произвела.
53. XXI век: новые международные отношения
Другое Экономика
Несмотря на все имеющиеся проблемы, у России сохраняется серьезный политический, экономический и внешнеэкономический потенциал:
- относительно динамично развивающаяся экономика (хотя данный процесс затухает);
- богатые минеральные, особенно энергетические, ресурсы, которые могут быть использованы гораздо более эффективно;
- ядерное оружие;
- существенные по мировым масштабам силы общего назначения (приблизительно равные силам Индии, Китая, объединенной Европы);
- членство в Совете Безопасности ООН, 'большой восьмерке' и одновременно в Шанхайской организации сотрудничества;
- выгодное геополитическое положение (ни США, ни Китай, ни Европа не хотят попадания России под влияние только одного из центров, что предоставляет ей возможность для относительно широкого маневра);
- непосредственное соседство с государствами - источниками терроризма (с нестабильным 'расширенным' Ближним Востоком и неустойчивой Центральной Азией) увеличивает геополитический вес страны.
54. Yates
Другое Экономика

To see how this tool helps us to think about scarcity and the problem of what to produce, we consider a hypothetical economy in which there are two types of good, food and films. There are four workers in the economy. A worker can produce in either the food industry or the film industry. The law of diminishing returns 2. Table 1-3 shows how much of each good can be produced per week. The answer depends on how the workers are allocated between the two industries. In each industry, the more workers there are, the greater is the total output of the good produced. We have assumed that production in each industry satisfies the law of diminishing returns. Each additional worker adds less to total industry output than the previous additional worker added. For example, consider the film industry. Beginning from the position of no workers and no output, the first worker employed increases output by 9 units per week. |Table1-3 | |PRODUCTION POSSIBILITIES IN THE | |HYPOTHETICAL ECONOMY | |Employmen|Outpu|Employmen|Outpu| |t |t of |t |t of | |In food |food |In films |films| |4 |25 |0 |0 | |3 |22 |1 |9 | |2 |17 |2 |17 | |1 |10 |3 |24 | |0 |0 |4 |30 | Adding a second worker raises film output only by 8 units per week, taking total film output to 17 units per week. Adding a third worker increases output by only 7 units per week, and the addition of yet more workers leads to even smaller increases in film output. 3. What lies behind the law of diminishing returns? We have implicitly assumed that workers in the film industry have at their disposal a fixed total amount of cameras, studios, and other equipment. The first worker has sole use of all these facilities. When a second worker is added, the two workers must share these facilities. The addition of further workers reduces equipment per worker to even lower levels. Thus, output per worker in the film industry falls as employment in the film industry rises. One worker produces 9 units per week, two workers average only 8^ units per week, and three workers average only 8 units per week. A similar story applies in the food industry. The fixed total supply of available land, water, and fertilizer must be shared between the total workforce. The first worker, using all these resources, produces 10 units of food per week, but output per person falls to 8$ units per week when two workers share these resources, and is only 7\ units per week when three workers share them. Both industries exhibit diminishing returns as additional workers are added. Table 1-3 shows the possible combinations of food and film output that can be produced in the hypothetical economy if all workers are employed. At one extreme, with all workers employed in food production, the economy can produce 25 units of food and 0 units of film. At the other extreme, with all workers employed in the film industry, the economy can produce 30 units of films but no food. By transferring workers from one industry to the other, the economy can produce more of one good, but only at the expense of producing less of the other good. We say that there is a trade-off between food production and film production. In moving down the rows of Table 1-3, society is trading off food for films, giving up units of food production to obtain additional units of film output.
55. А как бы поступил Макиавелли?
Другое Экономика

Наш провидец и Мастер являлся средней руки бюрократом, который большую часть своего рабочего времени провел в различных департаментах, подотчетных государю Флоренции. Он много разъезжал и потратил немало времени, представляя интересы своей корпорации в других городах и весях. Это было в те времена, когда Флоренция являлась отдельным государством, еще до того как она была захвачена Италией и стала ее частью. По этой причине Макиавелли и все его окружение воспринимали свое предприятие «концом и началом всего»: силой на мировой арене, росшей темпами, выражающимися двузначным числом, говоря языком нынешних времен.
56. А. Тюрго об эволюции классовой структуры буржуазного общества (Контрольная)
Другое Экономика

Класс ремесленников, занятый производством товара, необходимого для удовлетворения разнообразных потребностей общества, разделился впоследствии на два разряда. Первый: предприниматели-мануфактуристы, хозяева-фабриканты, владеющие большими капиталами и имеющие возможность вкладывать средства в создание производства и рабочих мест. Данный разряд получает прибыль за счет авансов, вложений в производство. Второй: простые ремесленники и рабочие, которые работают на первый разряд, своим трудом принося им прибыль и получая за него заработную плату. Это большинство наемные рабочие.
57. А.Смит и промышленный переворот
Другое Экономика

Как Кантильон, Петти и физиократы, Смит считал, что богатство прирастает производством, источником которого служит труд. Автор не считал, что таким источником служит только сельскохозяйственный труд. По-прежнему придерживаясь общепринятого тогда разграничения на труд производительный и непроизводительный, от рассматривал производительный труд (т.е., по его мнению, единственный, создающий добавочную стоимость), как любой труд создающий новый материальный продукт. В главе восьмой «Богатства народов» Смит предлагает читателю свою теорию заработной платы, основывая свои рассуждения на основном, по его мнению, виде трудовой активности, а именно производительном труде. Он начинает свои рассуждения со сжатого описания первобытного состояния общества, которое предшествует присвоению земли в частную собственность и накоплению капитала, говоря, что в таком обществе весь продукт труда принадлежит работнику. Если бы такое состояние сохранилось, то заработная плата возрастала бы по мере увеличения производительной силы труда с единичным коэффициентом. Но, с введением частной собственности на землю, появляется необходимость арендовать её у землевладельца, который, в свою очередь, устанавливает определённую ренту, которая и составляет первый вычет из продукта труда. Смит также говорит, что лицо обрабатывающее землю, только в очень редких случаях имеет средства для содержания себя до сбора жатвы и, таким образом, одновременно является и хозяином и работником, получая весь продукт своего труда. Смит принимает концепцию капитала как некоего запаса, из которого рабочим обычно авансируются средства, в то время, когда они не заняты выпуском. Средства авансируются из капитала его хозяина, который нанимает его с целью получения прибыли путём получения доли продукта его труда. Эта доля составляет второй вычет из продукта труда, который рабочий затрачивает на обработку земли. Смит выводит отсюда понятие обычной заработной платы, когда работник не является одновременно обладателем капитала.
58. Абсолютні і відносні величини
Другое Экономика

Поряд з абсолютними показниками, отриманими шляхом зведення даних спостереження, статистика використовує абсолютні показники, отримані розрахунковим шляхом. Так, обєм національного доходу обчислюють на базі даних про валову продукцію галузей матеріального виробництва і даних про матеріальне споживанні в цих галузях. Багато абсолютних величин розраховують балансовим методом. Розрахунок ґрунтується на тому, що в балансі всі показники звязані між собою так званою балансовою увязкою. Баланс складається з двох розділів: активу і пасиву. Баланс руху товарно-матеріальних цінностей в простій формі в активі має залишок на початок періоду і поступлення, а в пасиві вибуття і залишок на кінець періоду. Сума активу завжди рівна сумі пасиву. А тому, якщо один з чотирьох показників невідомий, його легко визначити через балансову увязку. Якщо, наприклад, невідомий обєм реалізації товарно-матеріальних цінностей за звітний період, то його розраховують як залишок на початок періоду плюс поступлення і мінус залишок на кінець періоду. Нехай залишок товарів на початок кварталу в одному з торгів становив 100 млн. грн., поступило за даний період товарів на суму 500 млн. грн., а залишок товарів на кінець цього кварталу склав 200 млн. грн.. Обєм реалізації за даний період становитиме:
59. Аветис Айрапетович Калантар
Другое Экономика

Сводкой его научно-исследовательских работ и статей этого периода явились труды: «Состав молока, как принцип при улучшении пород молочного скота» (1889 г.), «Минеральный состав молока коров русских пород» (.1887 г.), «Центробежные сливкоотделители» (1892 г.), «Как готовить хорошее масло» (1893 г.), «Новые точные опыты с Александра-сепаратором» (1893 г.), «Причины тяжелого хода сепараторов» (1894 г.), «Сепараторы для мелких хозяйств» (1894 г.), «Как выбирать маслобойку» (1895 г.), «О топке масла» (1895 г.), «Меры к поднятию молочного хозяйства и скотоводства» (1894 г.), «Влияние корма на жирность молока коров» (1897 г.), «Справочная книга по молочному хозяйству и скотоводству» (1898 г.) и другие.
60. Австрийская школа маржинализма
Другое Экономика

(потребляемые единицы)IIIIIIIVVVIVIIVIIIIXXПервый10987654321Второй9876543210Третий876543210 Четвертый76543210 Пятый6543210 Шестой543210 Седьмой43210 Восьмой3210 Девятый210 Десятый10 Одиннадцатый0 Римские цифры в таблице иллюстрируют конкретные виды благ (чем меньше цифра, тем большую значимость для индивида имеет данное благо), а арабские цифры - числовое значение полезности, которая приносит индивиду конкретная единица блага. Именно это значение и определяет субъективную ценность блага. Анализ таблицы показывает, что субъективная ценность зависит не только от того, насколько в принципе важно для индивида данное благо, но и от количества единиц этого блага, которые имеются в распоряжении у индивида.

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