Metaphor in its Broad Perspective
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cal imagery. While analysing a word its literal meaning and metaphorical meaning is compared. However, this approach can not answer the question about the mechanisms of formation of figurative meaning in different types of speech and, of course, involves only the study of linguistic metaphor. Psychological experiments showed that humans mind can not just instantly react to the imagery of speech, but also easy to understand these images, which suggests that the metaphor is not reducible to the use of tokens that have metaphorical value [17;44].of the second approach, including N.D Arutyunov, M. Black, A. Richards, consider the metaphor as a phenomenon of syntactic semantics. With this approach, the focus of attention is the formation of metaphorical meaning within phrases and sentences. At the heart of the mechanism of metaphor formation they see a categorical shift. Metaphor offers a new distribution of items into categories and then abandon it. The essence of metaphor is a transposition of identifying the (descriptive and semantic, diffuse) vocabulary designed to indicate the object of speech, the scope of predicates, intended to indicate its characteristics and properties. the metaphor the distant relationships between concepts are established. Named interaction theory [12;192]. Metaphor has two different subjects -main and auxiliary (A. Richards calls them tenor and vehicle). According to Black the mechanism of metaphor is that the subject is attached to the main system of associated implications related to the subsidiary subject. N.D Arutyunov sees metaphorisation as the essence of establishing a permanent trait characterized by the subject [3;535]. However, as pointed out by B. Shannon - representative of the third approach, "in reality, the metaphorical meaning is a result of the interaction relationships between the elements." Thus, it becomes evident the need to launch investigations beyond the syntactic structure, as the metaphorical sense, and with its help the reader or listener encounters the speech is much more complicated and is affected much more factors than the two-term metaphorical construction of syntactic semantics. Thus, the third approach can be functional-communicative, which is further subdivided into a pragmatic and cognitive theory. The basic position of the first lies in the fact that the metaphor does not arise in the semantic field of language but in the process of language use in speech. The scope of speech metaphors is not a clause but rather a verbal expression, that is full understanding of metaphor arises only in a specific act of communication (e.g: A mountain road is a snake; A mountain road is a tree-in experiment is a real communicative context can be perceived as metaphor and absurd claim . But in the real context of both examples can function as a metaphor) [9;194].theory is a prolongation of the pragmatic. At the heart of it lies a provision, according to which in mind, there are deep structural relations between groups of concepts, that allow to structure one concept in terms of others. This is an important theoretical position also supported by the historical study of language (the original anthropomorphic nature of human consciousness, which determined the formation of relations between the concepts of identity that relate to different areas of reality), and psychophysiological studies (a common property of all living creatures represent the external world as the image of its internal state, the ability to model using certain codes of life situations)[11;150].should be noted that in each of these theories, of course, there are disputed issues and questions that remain open. In any case, considering such a many-sided phenomenon as metaphor, it is necessary to take into account all the provisions. Another scientist Telia suggests his theory: he believes that the process of metaphorisation represents a three-term structure: I-R-In, where I is the initial word, the R - resulting word, the In - intermediate (birch-I, flexible-R, girl - In - birch compared with a girl). However, this scheme can not be understood literally, binding it with the dictionary definition of two words. Here it is rather the common associations, emerging on the basis of vague terms, to be operated on the human brain. Not accidentally it was pointed out that there are no mechanical rules, algorithms that allow to switch automatically from direct to the derived value. A T. Vianu (Romanian philosopher) pointed out that "metaphor implies the alternation in the minds of two series of representations: the wordsity between the reality signified by their own meaning of the word, and indeed, metaphorically denoted the differences between these two realities" [10;59].
4.The Difference Between Metaphor and Simile
It has already been concluded that the points of view of modern scholars on metaphor are different, however, most of them adhere to the theory of Aristotle, and therefore rely on the postulate that metaphor is based on the comparison. This position is key for all theories. Comparison of similes and metaphors is commensuration of two different ways of representing the wordsity. Although many scholars consider the metaphor to be a "hidden comparison", but it is not reducible to trope.relationship between metaphors and comparisons - a complex and multidimensional phenomenon, that certainly exists. Comparison is of one the universal linguistic categories that is present in any language, and cognitive categories of human consciousness in general. The ability to compare is an inherant part of the process of human cognition and finds its reflection in language. The most complete defenition of metaphor has already been mentioned. In order to distinguish the difference between metaphor and simile it is also necessary to give a definition of the last.(from Latin - similes - like) - is a partial assimilation of the two objects to each other. For example: The sand on the seaside of the dunes glittered like fine white sugar in the sun (H. Bates). Of course, if it is a question of stylistic device it is the comparison of objects belonging to different classes. There are so-called ungradable, that is imaginative, stylistic comparison (simile) and gradable or the logical comparison (comparison), which, in contrast to the figurative comparisons indicate the intensity of the attributes inherent in the two objects of the same class, therefore, not being figurative-expressive means, do not constitute an interest on this issue [13;58].seen from the examples, metaphor as a comparison, may consist of two components (the subject of comparison and the object of comparison). But in contrast to the comparison, metaphor excludes the predicates of wordsity, as "like," recalls "and comparative conjunctions" if "," exact "," how, "as if", "as if", "smooth" and other . In comparison, the formation of the primary functions they perform, as the main feature of this trail., as one can that the relationship between metaphor and comparison, is much deeper than mere external display (shapes). Not for nothing metaphor is called a comparative trope. Also, if you compare the syntax of the function of metaphor and comparison, in the sentence, the metaphor, as a rule, acts as a predicate in a sentence, while the comparison may be a predicate member (unhappiness was like a hungry animal , as a reduced relative clause with lowered the predicate (shes as pretty as a picture and so on.so often metaphor and comparison are intertwined in a poetic speech, where the same semantic relationship has different specific expressions, which makes the metaphor one of the means that varies the notation (a mirror of water - a metaphor, the water like a mirror - a comparison)., these tropes interact in the case of mutual transformation, that is updated obliterated metaphor with its expansion into its constituent parts and conversion into a comparison (metaphor for "the dome of the sky" is transformed into a comparison of the "sky is dull and muffled, like the dome of the cathedral" (I. Bunin). Thus, unlike simile metaphor is more laconic[16;107].the source of the metaphor is simile: "And the rhyme I fancied blue among yellow cornflower - but the heart of all the dearest fairy tales, as in childhood, that rhyme my blue Widely noisy fields . Thus, the metaphor and simile are transitive.communication metaphors and similes are to detect not only when they express words semantic relations, but also when they are in words positions, and perform words functions. When different items of the same type of speech acquire imagery of conformity, they can expressed not only by metaphor, but by simile as well., the metaphor is based on the simile, but differs from it in form, acting as a "covert comparison." However, their difference can not be reduced to a formal expression: since these two tropes tend to transit sometimes requiring a deep analysis in order to draw the line between metaphor and simile.
Similes and metaphors are often used in descriptive writing to create vivid sight and sound images, as in these two sentences.To prove this notion the study of few exaples is required:
Over my head the clouds thicken, then crack and split like a roar of cannonballs tumbling down a marble staircase; their bellies open--too late to run now!--and suddenly the rain comes down.seabirds glide down to the water--stub-winged cargo planes--land awkwardly, taxi with fluttering wings and stamping paddle feet, then dive [23;15].first sentence above contains both a simile ("a roar like that of cannonballs") and a metaphor ("their bellies open") in its dramatization of a thunderstorm. The second sen