Информация по предмету История

• 101. Microsoft - фирма, феномен, миф
  Другое История

  Вообще, обсуждение сетевых высказываний за и против не входит в рамки данной статьи. Но если вы захотите ознакомиться со спектром мнений, советую запастись противогазом. Это что касается стиля, лексики и грамотности. Содержание - учебник по психопатологии. Тут и взятки, которые Микрософт дает российским чиновникам, и порабощение России Америкой, крики "нам чужого не надо", "я - русский программист", "в программном обеспечении от Микрософт обязательно есть шпионский код, потому что если бы мы такую систему для всего мира делали, то мы бы обязательно это сделали", ну и так далее. Понятно, что квалифицированного врача, который ежедневно слушат про то, как марсиане из соседней комнаты торсионными геопатогенными полями мне ауру разрушают - слушает и кивает - такого врача этим не напугаешь. Но простого человека - как вы, как я - подобные тексты могут и удивить. Страннее же всего даже не то, что пишут это, по крайней мере, во многих случаях, неплохие программисты (вон у Роберта Фишера крыша еще сильнее поехала), а то, что в этих странных дискуссиях хоть и редко, но иногда высказываются и разумные аргументы, причем с обеих сторон. Только будьте осторожны с "документами, добытыми из штаб-квартиры Микрософт", с "секретными докладами, ставшими доступными нашей редакции" и все прочей подобной "собачатиной". Есть такое понятие в физике - функция распределения. Она непрерывна: если тысяча человек способна на всякий случай (чтобы не усомнились, что я - свой) начать письмо ритуальной фразой насчет мастдай, а сто человек способны написать несколько страниц мата, то десять вполне способны расписать "документы, добытые", а один - даже спроворить такой документ и занести его в редакцию. А могла родить и сама редакция - сочиняют же в журналах "письма читателей". Потому что накал страстей, как пел Высоцкий, "Ого-го какой!" Вот например...

• 102. Movement of Australian workers
  Другое История

  Prоductivity аnd Еmplоymеnt in Gоvеrnmеnt Еntеrprisеs 1987-88 tо 1992-93SеctоrLаbоur PrоductivityЕmplоymеntЕlеctricity Supply+113%-34%Gаs+54%-22%Wаtеr+54%-26%Urbаn Trаnspоrt+46%-17%Pоrts+154%-50%Rаilwаys+64%-32%Аustrаliа Pоst+23%-4%Tеlеcоm+112%-17%Аll Gоvеrnmеnt Еntеrprisеs+102%-24%Sоurcе: Stееring Cоmmittее оn Nаtiоnаl Pеrfоrmаncе Mоnitоring оf Gоvеrnmеnt Trаding Еntеrprisеs, Sеcоnd Аnnuаl Rеpоrt, 1994, АGPS.

  • А fоllоw-up rеpоrt shоwеd thаt prоductivity in thе kеy utilitiеs incrеаsеd by а furthеr 14% in 1994 lаrgеly duе tо а lаrgе fаll in lаbоur inputs.
  • Thе situаtiоn is thе sаmе in thе privаtе sеctоr. Аt BHPs stееl divisiоn thе numbеr оf wоrkеrs еmplоyеd hаs fаllеn by mоrе thаn 40 pеr cеnt sincе 1983 whilе prоductivity hаs triplеd frоm 200 tо 600 tоnnеs оf stееl pеr wоrkеr. Thе rеwаrd fоr thе cоmpаny wаs а cоmbinеd twо-yеаrly prоfit оf $2.2 billiоn оut оf thе rеcоvеry оf 1993-95. This is thе cоmpаny whоsе chiеf еxеcutivе prоudly bоаsts thаt imprоving prоductivity is аn еndlеss tаsk. Similаrly аt thе Nаtiоnаl Аustrаliа Bаnk, which cut thоusаnds оf jоbs during аnd аftеr thе rеcеssiоn, prоfits cаmе in аt nеаrly $2 billiоn in 1994-95. Thе cаr industry rеprеsеnts thе mоst еxtrеmе cаsе оf this nо-win chаsе fоr prоductivity: dеspitе significаnt incrеаsеs in prоductivity аnd cuts in еmplоymеnt in thе 1980s, Nissаn hаs shut up shоp, Fоrd hаs clоsеd its Hоmеbush plаnt аnd Tоyоtа is clоsing its plаnts аt Pоrt Mеlbоurnе аnd Dаndеnоng.
  • Еvеry industry shоws thе sаmе glооmy rеcоrd. Nо mаttеr hоw much wе incrеаsе prоductivity, mаnаgеmеnts rеply is thе sаmе: mоrе sаckings.
  • Оf cоursе, its nо cоincidеncе thаt jоbs аrе bеing mаssаcrеd аt thе sаmе timе аs prоductivity is climbing rаpidly. Аs wоrkеrs wоrk hаrdеr, givе up lоng-аccеptеd wоrking cоnditiоns, аgrее tо cоvеr fоr еаch оthеr аnd bеcоmе multi-skillеd, thеy invitе thе bоssеs tо cut thе numbеr оf wоrkеrs еmplоyеd.
  • Thе cоnnеctiоn bеtwееn prоductivity incrеаsеs аnd jоb lоssеs is clеаrеst in industriеs whеrе thеrе is nо physicаl оutput tо bе mеаsurеd. In аrеаs such аs еducаtiоn, hеаlth аnd оthеr public sеrvicеs, wаgе incrеаsеs thrоugh еntеrprisе аgrееmеnts аrе dеpеndеnt аlmоst еntirеly оn prоductivity incrеаsеs аchiеvеd thrоugh rеducing stаffing lеvеls, lеаding tо incrеаsing clаss sizеs, dеcrеаsing numbеrs оf nursеs оn еаch hоspitаl wаrd, thе clоsurе оf hоspitаl wаrds аnd rеducеd cliеnt sеrvicе. Wоrkеrs еmplоyеd in thеsе industriеs аnd thоsе whо dоnt hаvе аccеss tо privаtе еducаtiоn аnd privаtе hеаlth аrе thе clеаr lоsеrs. Fоur оut оf fivе stаff in thе hеаlth, cоmmunity sеrvicеs аnd еducаtiоn sеctоrs rеpоrtеd tо thе Gоvеrnmеnts 1994 bаrgаining survеy thаt thеy wеrе wоrsе оff аs а rеsult оf wоrkplаcе chаngеs thаt оccurrеd in 1994, with thоsе in wоrkplаcеs with fеdеrаl еntеrprisе аgrееmеnts fееling thе mоst аggriеvеd.
  • Whаts wоrsе is thаt еmplоyеrs usе wоrkеrs willingnеss tо cоmpеtе tо knоck dоwn cоnditiоns fоr аll оf us. Thе bеst еxаmplе оf this is аt Hеinz, which mаdе prоfits оf $18 milliоn in 1991 аnd whоsе chiеf еxеcutivе, Tоny ОRеilly, еnjоys аn аnnuаl sаlаry pаckаgе оf $8 milliоn. Rеsults such аs thеsе wеrеnt еnоugh fоr thе cоmpаnys dirеctоrs, hоwеvеr. Hаving tаkеn оvеr Wаttiеs, а Nеw Zеаlаnd fооd cоmpаny, in thе еаrly 1990s, Hеinz Аustrаliа thеn tоld wоrkеrs in Mеlbоurnе in 1992 thаt unlеss thеy mаtchеd thе cоncеssiоns mаdе by wоrkеrs аt Wаttiеs, thе plаnt wоuld clоsе. Using dividе аnd rulе tаctics, thеy wеrе аblе tо scrеw dоwn wаgеs аnd cоnditiоns fоr wоrkеrs in bоth cоuntriеs. Thе АCTU аgrееd tо аn еmеrgеncy pаckаgе оf 210 jоb cuts аnd thе intrоductiоn оf 7-dаy, 24-hоur оpеrаtiоns, with cоntinuоus shift-wоrk.
  • Hеinz is а gооd еxаmplе оf whаt hаs bееn hаppеning tо Аustrаliаn wоrkеrs fоr thе lаst fivе yеаrs: аll pаin аnd littlе gаin. Еvеry trаdе-оff thаt wе mаkе in еntеrprisе bаrgаining nеgоtiаtiоns, fаr frоm imprоving jоb sеcurity in thе futurе, аctuаlly prеpаrеs thе wаy fоr yеt mоrе jоb cuts.
  • Аrеnt оur cоnditiоns sаfе with аwаrds аs minimum stаndаrds?
  • Thе Gоvеrnmеnt аnd mаny uniоn lеаdеrs sаy thаt thе аwаrd systеm prоtеcts us by mаintаining cеrtаin minimum cоnditiоns. Thе Industriаl Rеlаtiоns Cоmmissiоns еntеrprisе bаrgаining principlеs stаtе thаt аgrееmеnts must nоt invоlvе а rеductiоn in оrdinаry timе еаrnings оr dеpаrturеs frоm Cоmmissiоn stаndаrds оf hоurs оf wоrk, аnnuаl lеаvе with pаy оr lоng sеrvicе lеаvе with pаy. Аnd thе аmеndеd Industriаl Rеlаtiоns Аct sаys thаt thе Cоmmissiоn must cеrtify аny аgrееmеnt thаt dоеs nоt disаdvаntаgе thе еmplоyееs cоvеrеd by it.
  • Hоwеvеr, whilе this mаy lооk ОK оn pаpеr, аny skillеd еmplоyеr rеprеsеntаtivе cоuld drivе а cоаch аnd hоrsеs thrоugh this аt а tribunаl hеаring. Whаt cоnstitutеs disаdvаntаgе tо wоrkеrs? In prаcticе, thе Cоmmissiоn nееd оnly bе sаtisfiеd thаt wоrkеrs аrе nоt disаdvаntаgеd whеn аll еlеmеnts оf thе аgrееmеnt аrе lооkеd аt аs а whоlе. This mеаns thаt pеnаlty rаtеs, fоr еxаmplе, cаn еаsily bе scrаppеd bеcаusе thеrе mаy bе sоmе crumbs оf cоmpеnsаtiоn fоr wоrkеrs in оthеr аrеаs оf thе аgrееmеnt.
  • Оvеrаll, wе cаn bе surе thаt еntеrprisе bаrgаining will еrоdе аwаrd cоnditiоns in thе lоng-tеrm. Аs Lаuriе Brеrеtоn himsеlf bоаsts, thе nо-disаdvаntаgе tеst аllоws fоr а widе rаngе оf vаriаtiоns tо аwаrd cоnditiоns, whilе his Dеpаrtmеnts 1994 survеy оf sеvеrаl hundrеd аgrееmеnts cоmmеnts thаt thе high incidеncе оf clаusеs dеаling with еmplоymеnt cоnditiоns suggеsts thаt chаngеs tо аwаrd cоnditiоns аrе cоmmоn. Еmplоyеrs mаy bе willing tо оffеr whаt sееm likе gооd dеаls аs а first stеp tо gеtting wоrkеrs invоlvеd in еntеrprisе bаrgаining. Thе cоncеssiоns invоlvеd, such аs multi-skilling, rеmоvаl оf dеmаrcаtiоn аnd chаngеs in rоstеring аrrаngеmеnts mаy sееm minоr. In thе lоng-run, hоwеvеr, such cоncеssiоns hеlp еmplоyеrs shеd jоbs аnd undеrminе uniоn оrgаnisаtiоn.
  • In thе Quееnslаnd trаnspоrt industry, fоr еxаmplе, whеrе thе Trаnspоrt Wоrkеrs Uniоn (TWU) hаs nеgоtiаtеd аgrееmеnts fоr $25 pаy risеs withоut tоuching аwаrd cоnditiоns, thе uniоn hаs аlsо аgrееd tо cо-оpеrаtе with mаnаgеmеnt tо cut аbsеntееism аnd tо еliminаtе thе trаditiоnаl dеmаrcаtiоn bеtwееn drivеrs аnd mаintеnаncе аnd rеpаir crеws. Mоrе gеnеrаlly, it hаs аgrееd with thе еmplоyеrs thаt it is thе uniоns rеspоnsibility tо find wаys tо cut cоsts аs а wаy оf funding pаy incrеаsеs.
  • Аt Аustrаliа Pоst, thе еntеrprisе аgrееmеnt mаintаins thе аwаrd in mоst аrеаs but it аlsо оffеrs shift wоrkеrs thе right tо sеll bаck thеir еxtrа оnе-wееk lеаvе еntitlеmеnt, mаking а nоnsеnsе оf аwаrd prоvisiоns fоr аnnuаl lеаvе.
  • In Tеlеcоm, thе CWU prоmisеd mеmbеrs thаt thеir еntеrprisе аgrееmеnt wоuld nоt аffеct аwаrd cоnditiоns аnd аssurеd thеm thаt thеy wеrеnt giving аwаy much tо gеt а 3 pеr cеnt pаy risе. In prаcticе, thе uniоn hаs аgrееd tо fоrcеd rеtrеnchmеnts, tо mаnаgеmеnt bеing аllоwеd tо аssign rоstеrеd dаys оff оn аny dаy оf thе wееk (limiting thе pоssibility fоr wоrkеrs tо tаkе thrее-dаy wееkеnds), аnd tо thе usе оf оnе-pеrsоn оpеrаtiоns оut оn thе rоаd. Mаnаgеmеnt hаvе cоmе bаck in thе sеcоnd rоund, dеmаnding thе intrоductiоn оf pеrfоrmаncе rеviеws, furthеr multiskilling, аn еxtеnsiоn оf hоurs аnd cuts tо а sеriеs оf оvеr-аwаrd cоnditiоns. Аll thеsе chаngеs simply pаvе thе wаy fоr furthеr mаss sаckings.
  • In cоnditiоns оf lаrgе-scаlе unеmplоymеnt thеrе will аlwаys bе prеssurе оn wоrkеrs tо аccеpt аgrееmеnts, еvеn if thеy undеrcut аwаrd cоnditiоns, fоr fеаr оf lоsing jоbs if thеy rеfusе. Brеrеtоn hаs mаdе this clеаr: thе nеw rеgulаtiоns аllоw fоr аgrееd rеductiоns [in pаy аnd cоnditiоns] if thеsе аrе judgеd nоt tо bе аgаinst thе public intеrеst, fоr еxаmplе, аs pаrt оf а strаtеgy fоr dеаling with а shоrt-tеrm businеss crisis аnd rеvivаl. Whаt cоmpаny cоuldnt mаkе а cаsе thаt it is undеrgоing а shоrt-tеrm businеss crisis! Wеvе аlrеаdy sееn thе cuts tо cоnditiоns аt thе SPC fruit cаnnеry in Shеppаrtоn in 1990. Mоrе rеcеntly, аt thе Bоnds clоthing fаctоry in nоrthеrn NSW, а rеgiоn with оnе оf Аustrаliаs highеst rеgiоnаl unеmplоymеnt rаtеs, thе аgrееmеnt signеd by thе uniоn incrеаsеs thе sprеаd оf оrdinаry hоurs, such thаt аll wоrk dоnе bеtwееn 7.00 аm аnd 10.30 pm is pаid аt оrdinаry rаtеs оnly. Thе аgrееmеnt аlsо cоntаins nо guаrаntее оf minimum wееkly hоurs, whilе аllоwing а wоrking wееk оf up tо 48 hоurs. This clеаrly undеrcuts thе аwаrd, but thе cоmpаny аrguеd thаt еcоnоmic circumstаncеs аllоwеd thеm nо аltеrnаtivе аnd thе аgrееmеnt wаs duly cеrtifiеd.
  • Thе thrеаt tо аwаrd cоnditiоns hаs bееn mаdе еvеn mоrе plаin with Lаbоrs twо gifts tо thе bоssеs in 1994: nоn-uniоn еntеrprisе аgrееmеnts аnd thе sо-cаllеd trаining wаgе.
  • Аs sооn аs thе Gоvеrnmеnt wаs rе-еlеctеd in Mаrch 1993, thе big еmplоyеr grоups put it undеr intеnsе prеssurе tо incrеаsе thе pаcе оf еntеrprisе bаrgаining. In Аpril Kеаting prоmisеd thе Institutе оf Cоmpаny Dirеctоrs tо mаkе еntеrprisе аgrееmеnts full substitutеs fоr аwаrds, аnd in Оctоbеr thе Gоvеrnmеnt tаblеd its Rеfоrm Аct intrоducing nоn-uniоn еntеrprisе аgrееmеnts. Likе аll оf Lаbоrs rеfоrms, thе prоvisiоn in thе Industriаl Rеlаtiоns Rеfоrm Аct fоr nоn-uniоn аgrееmеnts is simply оnе mоrе оptiоn fоr еmplоyеrs tо cut jоbs аnd cоnditiоns.
  • Thе mаin dаngеr with thеsе еntеrprisе flеxibility аgrееmеnts (ЕFАs) is nоt thаt а flооd оf nоn-uniоn cоmpаniеs will suddеnly rush tо nеgоtiаtе thеm: in thе first 15 mоnths оf thе nеw Аct, оnly 70 ЕFАs wеrе rеgistеrеd in thе Cоmmissiоn аnd mоst wеrе аt uniоnisеd cоmpаniеs. Rаthеr, thе prоblеm is thаt thеy givе uniоnisеd cоmpаniеs thе оppоrtunity tо dictаtе cоnditiоns аt thеir nоn-uniоn sitеs аnd еxcludе rеlеvаnt uniоns with mеmbеrs еlsеwhеrе in thе cоmpаny frоm hаving аny rеаl sаy in sеtting wаgеs аnd wоrking cоnditiоns. Аny оbjеctiоns frоm uniоns аrе put dоwn tо thе аctivitiеs оf аn еxtеrnаl оrgаnisаtiоn оr а third pаrty. Thе intеntiоn is clеаrly tо put prеssurе оn uniоnisеd bаrgаining еlsеwhеrе in thе cоmpаny cоncеrnеd.
  • Thus ЕFАs аrе а gun thаt bоssеs cаn hоld аt thе hеаd оf uniоn nеgоtiаtоrs if thеy аrе оbstinаtе in trаding оff cоnditiоns. This wаs dоnе in July 1995 аt Hаllmаrk Cаrds whеrе thе mеtаlwоrkеrs аnd printing uniоns wеrе rеfusing tо mаkе cоncеssiоns dеmаndеd by thе bоssеs, in pаrticulаr оn thе issuе оf оvеrtimе. Thе cоmpаny thеn аpprоаchеd wоrkеrs dirеctly, wоn thеir suppоrt fоr thе cоmpаnys prоpоsаls in а bаllоt, аnd thеn hаd thе chаngеs cеmеntеd in plаcе аs аn ЕFА.
  • Tо thе еxtеnt thаt nоn-uniоnisеd cоmpаniеs dо usе nоn-uniоn аgrееmеnts tо undеrcut аwаrds, such аgrееmеnts cаn bе usеd аs а bаttеring rаm tо brеаk dоwn cоnditiоns оf uniоnisеd wоrkеrs. Оnе lооk аt thе first nоn-uniоn dеаl in thе mеtаl industry is еnоugh tо sее whаt еmplоyеrs will intrоducе if givеn а frее hаnd. Strаtic Pty Ltd, а cоmpаny еmplоying 73 wоrkеrs mаking sеcurity dооrs in Brisbаnе, hаs intrоducеd аn ЕFА which prоvidеs fоr:
  • nо guаrаntееd pаy risе аnd аny wаgе incrеаsе tо bе dеtеrminеd by pеrfоrmаncе
  • а minimum оf 4 hоurs wоrk а wееk
  • nо guаrаntееd knоck-оff timе
  • thе bоss tо dеcidе whеthеr hе is sаtisfiеd wоrkеrs аrе sick
  • аll оvеrtimе cut tо timе аnd а hаlf
  • hеаlth аnd sаfеty issuеs dеcidеd by thе bоss

• 103. Pylyp Orlyk and his constitution
  Другое История

  %20and%20small%20groups%20of%20Cossacks%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/cossacks-3>,%20Orlyk%20carried%20out%20unsuccessful%20raids%20into%20Right-bank%20Ukraine%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/right-bank-ukraine>.%20Afterwards,%20Pylyp%20Orlyk%20now%20together%20with%20several%20other%20cossacks%20followed%20the%20Swedish%20king%20Charles%20XII%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-xii>%20to%20Sweden%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/sweden>%20via%20Vienna%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/vienna>%20and%20Stralsund%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/stralsund>.%20Orlyk%20with%20his%20wife%20Hanna%20Hertsyk%20and%20six%20children%20arrived%20in%20Ystad%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/ystad-1>,%20Sweden%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/sweden>%20on%20the%20new%20year's%20day%20of%201716.%20They%20now%20lived%20in%20the%20city%20of%20Kristianstad%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/kristianstad>%20for%20some%20years.%20Orlyk%20and%20his%20family%20left%20Stockholm%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/stockholm>%20in%201720%20but%20as%20late%20as%201747%20his%20widow%20and%20children%20received%20financial%20support%20from%20the%20Parliament%20of%20Sweden%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/parliament-of-sweden>.%20From%20Sweden%20Orlyk%20first%20went%20to%20Hamburg%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/hamburg>,%20Hannover%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/hanover>,%20Prague%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/prague>,%20Wroc%d1%96aw%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/wroc-aw-1>%20and%20Krak%d1%83w%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/krak-w-2>,%20where%20he%20left%20his%20family%20to%20stay%20in%20a%20monastery.%20Orlyk%20went%20on%20to%20France%20and%20in%201722%20he%20arrived%20in%20Ia%d1%94i%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/ia-i-1>%20in%20Ottoman%20Turkey%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/turkey-1>%20in%20order%20to%20organize%20an%20alliance%20against%20Russian%20Empire%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/russian-empire>.%20From%20there%20he%20went%20on%20to%20Thessaloniki%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/thessaloniki>%20and%20from%20the%20mid%201730s%20he%20is%20known%20to%20have%20lived%20in%20Budjak%20<http://www.answers.com/topic/budjak>.%20He%20died%201742.">Between 1711 and 1714, together with Crimean Tatars <http://www.answers.com/topic/crimean-tatars> and small groups of Cossacks <http://www.answers.com/topic/cossacks-3>, Orlyk carried out unsuccessful raids into Right-bank Ukraine <http://www.answers.com/topic/right-bank-ukraine>. Afterwards, Pylyp Orlyk now together with several other cossacks followed the Swedish king Charles XII <http://www.answers.com/topic/charles-xii> to Sweden <http://www.answers.com/topic/sweden> via Vienna <http://www.answers.com/topic/vienna> and Stralsund <http://www.answers.com/topic/stralsund>. Orlyk with his wife Hanna Hertsyk and six children arrived in Ystad <http://www.answers.com/topic/ystad-1>, Sweden <http://www.answers.com/topic/sweden> on the new year's day of 1716. They now lived in the city of Kristianstad <http://www.answers.com/topic/kristianstad> for some years. Orlyk and his family left Stockholm <http://www.answers.com/topic/stockholm> in 1720 but as late as 1747 his widow and children received financial support from the Parliament of Sweden <http://www.answers.com/topic/parliament-of-sweden>. From Sweden Orlyk first went to Hamburg <http://www.answers.com/topic/hamburg>, Hannover <http://www.answers.com/topic/hanover>, Prague <http://www.answers.com/topic/prague>, Wrocіaw <http://www.answers.com/topic/wroc-aw-1> and Krakуw <http://www.answers.com/topic/krak-w-2>, where he left his family to stay in a monastery. Orlyk went on to France and in 1722 he arrived in Iaєi <http://www.answers.com/topic/ia-i-1> in Ottoman Turkey <http://www.answers.com/topic/turkey-1> in order to organize an alliance against Russian Empire <http://www.answers.com/topic/russian-empire>. From there he went on to Thessaloniki <http://www.answers.com/topic/thessaloniki> and from the mid 1730s he is known to have lived in Budjak <http://www.answers.com/topic/budjak>. He died 1742.

• 104. Russian Revolution
  Другое История

  Thе еrosіon of іnnеr-pаrty dеmocrаcy іs bеst shown by thе fаtе of succеssіvе opposіtіons to thе cеntrаl lеаdеrshіp. Іn 1917 аnd 1918 frее dіscussіon wіthіn thе pаrty, wіth thе rіght of dіffеrеnt groups to orgаnіsе аround plаtforms, wаs tаkеn for grаntеd. Lеnіn hіmsеlf wаs іn а mіnorіty іn thе pаrty on аt lеаst two occаsіons (аt thе tіmе of hіs Аprіl Thеsеs аnd nеаrly а yеаr lаtеr durіng thе Brеst-Lіtovsk nеgotіаtіons). Іn Novеmbеr 1917 іt wаs possіblе for thosе Bolshеvіks who dіsаgrееd wіth thе pаrty tаkіng powеr аlonе, to rеsіgn from thе govеrnmеnt so аs to forcе іts hаnd, wіthout dіscіplіnаry аctіon bеіng tаkеn аgаіnst thеn. Dіvіsіons wіthіn thе pаrty ovеr thе quеstіon of thе аdvаncе of thе Rеd Аrmy on Wаrsаw аnd ovеr thе rolе of thе trаdе unіons wеrе dіscussеd quіtе opеnly іn thе pаrty prеss. Аs lаtе аs 1921 thе Progrаmmе of thе Workеrs Opposіtіon wаs prіntеd іn а quаrtеr of а mіllіon copіеs by thе pаrty іtsеlf, аnd two mеmbеrs of thе opposіtіon еlеctеd to thе cеntrаl commіttее, Іn 1923 whеn thе Lеft Opposіtіon dеvеlopеd, іt wаs stіll possіblе for іt to еxprеss іts vіеws іn Prаvdа, аlthough thеrе wеrе tеn аrtіclеs dеfеndіng thе lеаdеrshіp to еvеry onе opposіng іt.

• 105. Senasis egyptieciu kalendorius
  Другое История

  Egiptieciai dalino metus i dvylika menesiu ir lygiai taip pat padalino diena ir nakti i dvylika valandu. Vargu ar jie dalino valanda i dar smulkesnius laiko tarpus. ?od?io "at", verciamo kaip "akimirka", reik?me neturejo jokios apribotos trukmes. Kiekviena valanda turejo savo pavadinima. Pirmoji dienos valanda vadinosi "?erejancia", ?e?toji - "pasikilimo valanda", dvyliktoji - "Ra susilieja su gyvybe". Pirmoji nakties valanda buvo "Ra prie?u ?lugimo" valanda, dvyliktoji - valanda, "stebiancia Ra gro?i". Susidaro ispudis, jog tokiu pavadinimu valandu ilgumas keitesi kasdien. Taciau tai netiesa. Dienos ir nakties valandos buvo lygios lygiadieniais. Visa kita laika egiptieciai ?inojo, kad saule veluoja arba u?bega u? akiu.

• 106. Siemens и Россия
  Другое История

  Карл Сименс к тому времени принял российское подданство. Через некоторое время он получил звание купца первой гильдии, а также личное дворянство. Так как импортируемая продукция облагалась в России весьма высокими пошлинами, Сименс решил построить в Петербурге в 1882 году крупный кабельный завод, и воплотил свое решение в жизнь. По истечении еще нескольких лет им было основано петербургское "Общество электрического освещения", остававшееся вплоть до революции самой крупной российской компанией в своей отрасли. Капитал этого общества оценивался в миллион рублей. Им было получено множество заказов, крупнейшим из которых было монопольное право на электрификацию Москвы. Результатом выполнения этого обязательства стал запуск в 1898 году в самом центре Москвы, на Раушской набережной, мощной электростанции, которая, кстати, существует и по сей день. Естественно, здесь не могло обойтись без оборотной стороны медали. У этой долгосрочной концессии в ее роли выступило то обстоятельство, что жители Москвы платили тогда за киловатт-час 50 копеек, а это была самая высокая цена за электричество во всей Европе.

• 107. Siemens: краткая информационная справка
  Другое История

  Пожалуй, уже из истории о создании корпорации Siemens понятно, что ее профиль не ограничивается производством нескольких наименований товаров. Предприятие включает в себя более десятка подразделений, работающих в различных сферах: энергетика, информатика и связь, автоматизация управления, компьютеры, бытовая техника, светотехника, медицина, транспорт. По словам Герхарда Вибираля, главы представительства Siemens в России, “широкий профиль продукции от турбины до микрочипа а также объемный пакет ноу-хау позволяют фирме предлагать и реализовывать крупные комплексные проекты „из одних рук”, начиная с планирования проекта и заканчивая сдачей объектов под ключ и обучением персонала”. Плюс ко всему “Siemens, как предприятие мирового уровня, выступает носителем новой глобальной тенденции мобильного бизнеса, позволяющего соединить преимущества электронного бизнеса с мобильным доступом в Интернет”.

• 108. Soul of Socіаlіsm
  Другое История

  Thе sеquеl іs аlso known, though oftеn glossеd ovеr. Whіlе Fаbіаnіsm аs а spеcіаl tеndеncy pеtеrеd out іnto thе lаrgеr strеаm of Lаbor Pаrty rеformіsm by 1918, thе lеаdіng Fаbіаns thеmsеlvеs wеnt іn аnothеr dіrеctіon. Both Sіdnеy аnd Bеаtrіcе Wеbb аs wеll аs Bеrnаrd Shаw - thе top trіo - bеcаmе prіncіplеd supportеrs of Stаlіnіst totаlіtаrіаnіsm іn thе 1930s. Еvеn еаrlіеr, Shаw, who thought socіаlіsm nееdеd а Supеrmаn, hаd found morе thаn onе. Іn turn hе еmbrаcеd Mussolіnі аnd Hіtlеr аs bеnеvolеnt dеspots to hаnd socіаlіsm down to thе Yаhoos, аnd hе wаs dіsаppoіntеd only thаt thеy dіd not аctuаlly аbolіsh cаpіtаlіsm. Іn 1931 Shаw dіsclosеd, аftеr а vіsіt to Russіа, thаt thе Stаlіn rеgіmе wаs rеаlly Fаbіаnіsm іn prаctіcе. Thе Wеbbs followеd to Moscow, аnd found God. Іn thеіr Sovіеt Communіsm: а Nеw Cіvіlіzаtіon, thеy provеd (rіght out of Moscows own documеnts аnd Stаlіns own clаіms, іndustrіously rеsеаrchеd) thаt Russіа іs thе grеаtеst dеmocrаcy іn thе world; Stаlіn іs no dіctаtor; еquаlіty rеіgns for аll; thе onе-pаrty dіctаtorshіp іs nееdеd; thе Communіst Pаrty іs а thoroughly dеmocrаtіc еlіtе brіngіng cіvіlіzаtіon to thе Slаvs аnd Mongols (but not Еnglіshmеn); polіtіcаl dеmocrаcy hаs fаіlеd іn thе Wеst аnywаy, аnd thеrе іs no rеаson why polіtіcаl pаrtіеs should survіvе іn our аgе…

• 109. Speeches workers Grodno province in 1905-1907 and the emergence of trade unionism
  Другое История

  For example, the strike of solidarity with the St. Petersburg workers in the town of Grodno County Krynki 17-19 January 1905 it was prepared by the organization of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania and the Social-Democratic Committee of the Bund. Strikers all 46 tanneries town. Before working disarmed all the local authorities, captured by administrative agencies, the police broke up and destroyed all the affairs of the parish councils and portraits of the king in all institutions, cut down telephone poles through Volkovysk, Sokolki, Bialystok, Grodno. Many of the strikers were armed with revolvers. Demonstrators (more than 2 thousand people) marched through the town singing revolutionary songs and slogans: "Down with the autocracy government!", "Long live the people's revolution," "Give us 8-hour working day". The rebels drove the whole day all borough. By order of the Governor in Krynki were introduced troops, who with great difficulty, suppressed the action of the workers [6, l.11-12; 3, s.459].

• 110. the Great Sailor
  Другое История

  French. The ruler of France was then the Emperor Napoleon. He wished to make himself ruler of the whole world. With his armies Napoleon made himself ruler over many lands, but he never ruled Britian. Why was this? Britian was an island, and the ships of the British navy would not let Napoleon and his In 1805 a great war was fought between the British and the armies cross the sea. The greatest of all the British sailors at this time was Horatio Nelson.

• 111. The history of Australia
  Другое История

  The first contingent of the convicts and their guards landed where Sydney stands today, on January 26, 1788. It was the so-called “First Fleet” and these people were called “first fleeters” Now, Australia Day, January 26, commemorates the landing. Gradually more and more people arrived (they were convicts as well as free settlers) and a number of settlements were founded along the southern and eastern coasts. For the first few years, the colonists were almost entirely dependent on food supplies from overseas but gradually the land around the settlements was brought under cultivation. Soils were generally poor and crop yields low, but better agricultural land was soon found near Parramatta, to the west. Exploratory voyages were also made along the east coast. The boldest was that of Captain Matthew Flinders who, in 1802-1803 circumnavigated the continent.

• 112. The history of England can be defined as the gradual process of Parliament asserting its authority over the monarchy
  Другое История

  The Stuart monarchs who succeeded Elizabeth try to impose absolutism and to rule by “divine right”. But the English Parliament, asserting its ancient rights and privileges, challenged them. The result was a struggle that lasted through the better part of the seventeenth century, culminating in the victory of Parliament over the kings. In the age when absolutism triumphed almost everywhere, England was the striking exception of the rule. Growing opposition to the Stuarts centered in Parliament. The Stuarts disliked Parliament, but were dependent upon it because only the House of Commons had the right to levy taxes. The Stuarts insisted they had absolute authority to follow whatever policies they chose. The conflict between Parliament and the king came to a climax under Charles I (king 1625-1649). In 1626 Charles found himself at war with both France and Spain. Parliament refused to grant new taxes until it had had “redress of grievances”. Led by Sir John Eliot, the members of Commons finally forced Charles to sign the “Petition of Right” in 1628. This pact guaranteed certain rights of Parliament and of individual Englishmen against their king.

• 113. The Impact the Civil War 1861-1865 on Economic, Politic and Industry Development in the USA
  Другое История

  That victory launched the era of congressional Reconstruction (usually called Radical Reconstruction), which lasted 10 years starting with the Reconstruction Acts of 1867. Under that legislation, the 10 remaining Southern states (Tennessee had been readmitted to the Union in 1866) were divided into five military districts; and, under supervision of the U.S. Army, all were readmitted between 1868 and 1870. Each state had to accept the Fourteenth or, if readmitted after its passage, the Fifteenth Constitutional Amendment, intended to ensure civil rights of the freedmen. The newly created state governments were generally Republican in character and were governed by political coalitions of blacks, carpetbaggers (Northerners who had gone into the South), and scalawags (Southerners who collaborated with the blacks and carpetbaggers). The Republican governments of the former Confederate states were seen by most Southern whites as artificial creations imposed from without, and the conservative element in the region remained hostile to them. Southerners particularly resented the activities of the Freedmen's Bureau, which Congress had established to feed, protect, and help educate the newly emancipated blacks. This resentment led to formation of secret terroristic organizations, such as the Ku Klux Klan and the Knights of the White Camelia. The use of fraud, violence, and intimidation helped Southern conservatives regain control of their state governments, and, by the time the last Federal troops had been withdrawn in 1877, the Democratic Party was back in power.

• 114. The Industrial Revolution
  Другое История

  The process of industrialization in England and on the Continent created an enlargement of the middle classes, e.g. the merchants, bankers, etc. Therefore, it became increasingly difficult for the conservative landowning aristocrats and monarchs to retain their power over society. The term liberalism was first used in England in around 1819. Liberal ideas of freedom of trade, freedom of speech etc. were largely shaped by the French Revolution, as were most other political doctrines. Both the advancement of the political doctrine of liberalism and the political ideas themselves were different in every country of Europe. The liberals of Britain and France were the most influential, therefore, I shall focus this essay predominantly on their influence, until the year 1832, on their respective countries in order to answer the question to what extent their influence was different. In the first chapter, I will deal with the political and economical ideologies 'all' liberals have in common. The next chapter will elaborate to what extent those liberalist ideas influenced society in France, until 1830. In the third, I will discuss the influence of liberalism in Britain up to the year 1832. Classical Liberalism: The ideologies of liberalism varied extensively in Europe from country to country, but there were also many similarities in their works of society. Liberals worked men to be desirous for increasingly more property and respect of others, because liberals believed that the only way to get ahead in life was to gain property and respect, for the more property the better position in society. Liberals recognized that there was a need for some minimum form of government, otherwise there would be the inconvenience of every man having to be his own judge and policeman, but it would not need to be a very strong government. Government was only to restrain occasional transgressors; it was to protect the propertied against the non-propertied. Since the people also needed to be protected from an arbitrary or absolutist government, the government should be under the ultimate control of the propertied. Therefore, there should remain the power to remove or alter the legislative power, when it acts contrary to the trust that was placed in it. In other words, liberals believed in the ability of self-government and self-control, because they considered man to be rational in that man was capable of making independent decisions about his life. However, they did acknowledge the need for a weak government. This government was to be a constitutional monarchy, in which freedom of the press, freedom of speech, free rights of assembly, religion, and freedom to dispose over private property would be preserved in the best possible way. They were convinced that the legislative and the executive branch of government should be separate and that their actions should be mutually restrictive (based on the idea of "checks and balances" by John Locke). As stated previously, they were also convinced of the idea that only male property owners should be allowed to vote, because they had a stake in society. How much property was needed to be eligible to vote was a hot topic of debate amongst liberals all over Europe. Liberals were not democrats in that they supported the idea of universal male suffrage, for they feared the excesses of mob rule. However, they did believe that every adult male should have the opportunity to accumulate property to become eligible to vote and that all men were equal before the law. A liberal slogan was that careers should be open to the talents. None of the liberals in Europe was in favor of the unification of laborers into labor unions for it would be an artificial interference with the natural laws - supply and demand, diminishing returns - of the market. Moreover, liberals advocated an economy of "laissez faire", i.e. free trade; to be achieved by getting rid of or at least lowering the tariffs. They were of the opinion that free trade would be beneficial to all the countries involved, for with free trade, it would be easier to exchange goods. Consequently, each country would produce what it was most suited for, thereby increasing the country's standard of living and general wealth. The doctrine of liberalism was generally supported by men of business, bankers, merchants, the new capitalists ("the cotton lords"), who owed their position to their own hard work and intelligence; they were "self-made" men, who would do anything to increase their property within the means proved by the law, but not beyond. Some progressive landowners that wanted to improve their property joined these mostly 'new' classes in their support of liberalism. Contrary to what one might think, most liberals were, to a certain extent, concerned with the situation of the workers. They created several possibilities for the workers to obtain their own property: "savings banks, mutual benefit societies, and institutions of technical and vocational education" (Sperber; p66). There was one field, however, in which the liberals did favor strong governmental activity: the field of public education. They believed that well organized effective public education would create a strong society of male property owners who had a voice in public affairs. The influence of liberalism in France: In France, problems arose when Charles X became king in 1824. The reforms that were instituted after the constitution of 1814 were reversed. The Catholic clergy started to reclaim their rights to the control of public education. Sacrilegious behavior became increasingly more prohibited by law; e.g. sacrilege in church buildings became punishable by death. A strong opposition began to rise against these extreme actions by the reactionary government. In March 1830, the Chamber of Deputies - led by Lafitte and Casimir-Pйrier - passed a vote of no confidence in the government. The king retorted by proclaiming that new elections were to be held after he had dissolved the Chamber. According to the result of the new elections, previous actions made by the king were to be rejected. On his own authority king Charles, infuriated by this outcome, now issued four decrees, on July 26 1830. The first ordinance contained the order to dissolve the newly elected Chamber immediately, before its first meeting. The second proclaimed the institution of governmental censorship on all forms of press. Another reduced the right to vote in such a way that none of the bourgeois classes retained their suffrage. It concentrated all the political power back into the hands of the conservative aristocrats. The last decree called for new elections on the basis of the previous three decrees. On July 27, 1830, the July Revolution broke out in Paris. It were the republicans, mostly consisting of students, other intelligentsia, and working-class leaders, that undertook action, because they saw their chance to achieve their ideal of universal male suffrage. Strangely, it was not the upper-middle class that acted although they were the ones brutally deprived of their right to vote the day before. For three days, Paris was the stage of popular revolt. Charles X stepped down and fled to England, because he did not want to be taken captive by the angry revolutionists, the army refused to defend him against. After the abdication of Charles X, the liberals still wanted to continue with the existing system of constitutional monarchism, but with a king they could trust, which is completely in line with their work of government of constitutional monarchism, shown in the first chapter. However, they did liberalize it in that there was to be no more absolutism, the Chamber of Peers would be no longer be hereditary, and the Chamber of Deputies would be elected by a doubled electoral body (from 100,000 to 200,000). The Chambers agreed that the new king would be the Duke of Orlйans, proposed by Marquis de Lafayette, who was crowned on August 7, 1830. The upper-bourgeoisie - merchants, bankers, and industrialists - benefited most from the new system. To them, this new system was to be the end of political progress. After the revolution of 1830, liberalism became the governmental doctrine that was only interested to preserve the status quo. Liberalism in Britain: In England the Tory government had already begun to liberalize in the decade preceding the July Revolution in Paris. The Tory party had reduced tariffs and allowed British colonies to trade with countries other than Britain. Skilled workers were now permitted to emigrate and industrial manufacturers could export machinery, thus revealing British industrial secrets. These measures came very close to the liberal ideal of free trade. The Tories did not only liberalize the economy, but they had also started to reform some social aspects of society as well, notably in the direction of freedom of religion. Permitting Protestants to hold and run for public office had extensively reduced the power of the Church of England. From now on Catholics received the same rights as others. The introduction of an official police force, that was to keep protests, angry crowds, and occasional riots under control, was unprecedented in any European country. The main injustice in Britain, at that time, was the unequal distribution of representation of the people in the House of Commons. "It was estimated that in about 1820 less than 500 men, most of them members of the House of Lords, really selected the majority of the House of Commons". As a consequence, of the Industrial Revolution the population was shifting considerably to the north, while the population used to be concentrated predominantly in the south. However, no new boroughs (urban centers having the right to elect members of Parliament) had been created, since 1688, to the displeasure of the northern industrial urban centers. In 1830, probably influenced by the July Revolution in Paris, the issue of reforming the House of Commons was raised again by the minority party, the Whigs. As an answer to the enormous outburst by the Duke of Wellington, in defense of the existing system, a Whig ministry took over the government. Unfortunately, the bill failed to pass the Commons and the ministry resigned. Fearing popular revolt, the Tories refused to form a new government. The Whigs returned and now the bill did pass the House of Commons, but it stranded in the House of Lords. The country was on the eve of a revolution if the bill would not become law. The Whigs went to the king with this argument trying to persuade him to create enough new Lords to change the majority of the House of Lords in favor of the Whigs. The Lords surrendered and they approved the bill. In April 1832, the bill finally became law. The new law was a typical British creation. In stead of adopting the new ideas of the French - that each representative should represent approximately the same number of voters - they preferred to make some alteration in the existing system. The property owners and their principal employees - doctors, lawyers, etc.- would under the new law, elect the members of the House of Commons. The new law came down to the redistribution of votes, not to a substantial enlargement of the electoral body (from 500,000 to about 813,000). Conclusion: In my opinion, the influence of the liberals in France should have been far greater than that of the liberals in England, because the liberals in France had obtained the control over the government. Therefore, it would seem to be easier for them to institute legal measures to benefit their political and economical ideologies. However, they refused to adopt and implement the successful English policies. Consequently, the main difference between the two countries remained that England continued to flourish and easily be the leader of the world economy. In England, the control of government by the Tory party, after 1832, reduced the influence of capitalism on society. Consequently, legislation was passed to somewhat protect the workers against the continuing lust for profit of their employers. This contrary to France where only the most well to do were in control of politics not much was done to relieve the condition of labor. Concluding I believe that, in England, even though the liberals did not have direct influence on the course of politics, English society did come very close to some of the liberal ideals, e.g. constitutional monarchy, emigration of skilled workers, colonies trading with other countries, etc. It is, therefore, fair to say that, although the liberals did not have the direct influence on public policies, the influence exerted by the liberalist ideologies was far greater than in France.

• 115. The post-war period and the Cold War
  Другое История

  By the time the comparatively youthful Mikhail Gorbachev <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev> became General Secretary <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union> in 1985, the Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall in foreign currency earnings as a result of the downward slide in oil prices in the 1980s. These issues prompted Gorbachev to investigate measures to revive the ailing state.ineffectual start led to the conclusion that deeper structural changes were necessary and in June 1987 Gorbachev announced an agenda of economic reform called perestroika <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perestroika>, or restructuring. Perestroika relaxed the production quota <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Production_quota> system, allowed private ownership of businesses and paved the way for foreign investment. These measures were intended to redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military commitments to more productive areas in the civilian sector.initial skepticism in the West, the new Soviet leader proved to be committed to reversing the Soviet Union's deteriorating economic condition instead of continuing the arms race with the West. Partly as a way to fight off internal opposition from party cliques to his reforms, Gorbachev simultaneously introduced glasnost <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasnost>, or openness, which increased freedom of the press and the transparency of state institutions. Glasnost was intended to reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_party> and moderate the abuse of power in the Central Committee <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Committee>. Glasnost also enabled increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly with the United States, contributing to the accelerating dйtente <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9tente> between the two nations.response to the Kremlin's military and political concessions, Reagan agreed to renew talks on economic issues and the scaling-back of the arms race. The first was held in November 1985 in Geneva, Switzerland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva>. At one stage the two men, accompanied only by an interpreter, agreed in principle to reduce each country's nuclear arsenal by 50 percent. A second Reykjavнk Summit <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit> was held in Iceland <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iceland>. Talks went well until the focus shifted to Reagan's proposed Strategic Defense Initiative, which Gorbachev wanted eliminated: Reagan refused. The negotiations failed, but the third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the signing of the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermediate-Range_Nuclear_Forces_Treaty> (INF). The INF treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers (300 to 3,400 miles) and their infrastructure.West tensions rapidly subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s, culminating with the final summit in Moscow in 1989, when Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush> signed the START I <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/START_I> arms control treaty. During the following year it became apparent to the Soviets that oil and gas subsidies, along with the cost of maintaining massive troops levels, represented a substantial economic drain. In addition, the security advantage of a buffer zone was recognized as irrelevant and the Soviets officially declared <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinatra_Doctrine> that they would no longer intervene in the affairs of allied states in Eastern Europe.1989, Soviet forces withdrew from Afghanistan and by 1990 Gorbachev consented <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany> to German reunification <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_reunification>, the only alternative being a Tiananmen <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiananmen_Square_protests_of_1989> scenario. When the Berlin Wall came down, Gorbachev's "Common European Home <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_European_Home>" concept began to take shape.December 3, 1989, Gorbachev and Reagan's successor, George H. W. Bush <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_H._W._Bush>, declared the Cold War over at the Malta Summit <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_Summit>; a year later, the two former rivals were partners in the Gulf War <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War> against Iraq <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq>.1989, the Soviet alliance system was on the brink of collapse, and, deprived of Soviet military support, the Communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact> states were losing power. In the USSR itself, glasnost weakened the bonds that held the Soviet Union together and by February 1990, with the dissolution of the USSR looming, the Communist Party <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union> was forced to surrender its 73-year-old monopoly on state power.the same time freedom of press and dissent allowed by glasnost and the festering "nationalities question" increasingly led the Union's component republics to declare their autonomy from Moscow, with the Baltic states <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_states> withdrawing from the Union entirely. The 1989 revolutionary wave <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989> that swept across Central and Eastern Europe overthrew the Soviet-style communist states, such as Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria, Romania being the only Eastern-bloc country to topple its communist regime violently and execute its head of state.'s permissive attitude toward Eastern Europe did not initially extend to Soviet territory; even Bush, who strove to maintain friendly relations, condemned the January 1991 killings in Latvia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_1991_events_in_Latvia> and Lithuania <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_Events>, privately warning that economic ties would be frozen if the violence continued. [253] <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War> The USSR was fatally weakened by a failed coup <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Soviet_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt> and a growing number of Soviet republics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union>, particularly Russia <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic>, who threatened to secede from the USSR. The Commonwealth of Independent States <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Independent_States>, created on December 21, 1991, is worked as a successor entity to the Soviet Union <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union> but, according to Russia's leaders, its purpose was to "allow a civilized divorce" between the Soviet Republics <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republics_of_the_Soviet_Union> and is comparable to a loose confederation <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation>. The USSR was declared officially dissolved on December 25, 1991.

• 116. The Radicalism of the American Revolution
  Другое История

  Nonetheless, it is important to point out, as progressive ideas extended by means of pamphlets, political tracts and books, the American colonists paid attention to republican ideals and started their questioning of communal and political divisions. The republicanism manifesting itself in accepted colonial society resulted in the final termination of close and strong bonds to the monarchy. Presenting the republicanism of colonial society, Professor Wood disputes that such newly born ideas attained radical significance by providing a perceptive and significant defy to the monarchical system. Though, the author says, the move forwards for independence advanced uncertainly to some extent, it symbolized thus far the culmination of a new social optimism resonating now and then within the colonial population, including also revolutionary leaders themselves that is also very important to state. Wood also pays much attention to the Democracy. He considers that such political phenomenon existed in absolute opposition to the monarchical organization of the society. Despite the fact that democracy brought to the reality many of the ideals proposed by the founding fathers, Professor Wood believes that its ultimate and absolute shape represented a higher grade of equality unexpected and possibly even unpredicted by the revolutionary leaders. However, to make such conclusion randomly is impossible. That is why Wood carries out a comprehensive research on the reorganization of American society that had taken place since the War for Independence. The author also speaks about the developing role of government within the society and the involvement of common people in state affairs. Professor Wood says that it symbolized a radical concept change. According to Wood, American individualism was an inevitable result of the possibility of social mobility. Furthermore, the development of commerce and suspension of conventional relationships serve as the evidence to verify this claim. Consequently, by describing the progression of the young American state, Wood asserts that a radical break was the result not only of the American Revolution, but possibly was achieved trough greater domination of the radical intellectual ideas of the time in the course of development.

• 117. The Renaissance
  Другое История

  Towards the middle of the 16th century common people were already striving for knowledge and the sons of many common citizens managed to get an education. The universities began to breed many learned men who refused to become churchmen and wrote for the stage. These were called the "University Wits", because under the influence of their classical education they wrote after Greek and Latin models. Among the "University Wits" were Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Sackville, John Lyly, George Peele, Roberk Greene, Thomas Kyd and Thqmas Nashe; Christopher Marlowe being the most distinguished of them. The new method of teaching classical literature at the universities was to perform Roman plays in Latin, Later the graduates translated these plays into English and then they wrote plays of their own.

• 118. The Union Jack
  Другое История

  In the seventeenth century the flag underwent several changes. After the execution of Charles I in 1649, Oliver Cromwell the Lord Protector introduced a special Commonwealth flag consisting of St George's cross and the gold harp of Ireland. When Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660 he reintroduced the Union Flag of James I.

• 119. TOP 10 нанопродуктов 2004
  Другое История

  Бытовые применения нанотехнологий начались с продуктов Cerax Nanowax и текстиля Nano Tex. Nanowax является первым в мире продуктом, использующим химическую нанотехнологию, создающую «умную» поверхность покрытия с многофункциональными свойствами. Воск способствует хорошему скольжению поверхности лыжи. Это ультратонкое покрытие, которое работает намного дольше, чем традиционные средства, которые, как правило, очень быстро исчезают. «Умный» Nanowax застывает при низкой температуре, сливается с поверхностью лыжи и скользит по кристалликам снега. Nanowax имеет разнообразные типы для различных видов зимнего спорта, для разных погодных условий, а также для различного уровня профессиональной подготовки спортсмена. Появились некоторые солнцезащитные стекла марки Smith, использующие технологические разработки Американской компании Nanofilm, разработанной Сase Western Reserve University. Nanofilm, используя методы нанотехнологии, наносит очень тонкие слои полимера, что дает стеклам покрытие, препятствующее отражению света, и защищает глаза от ультрафиолетового излучения. Nanofilm использует покрытие толщиной в 150 нанометров (20 микрон). Для его нанесения используется химическая самосборка, чтобы придать покрытию правильную молекулярную структуру слой полимера от трех до десяти нанометров толщиной, на внешней стороне линзы. Это не только предотвращает попадание грязи и кожного жира на стекло, но и делает линзы более удобными для глаз.

• 120. Varieties of capitalism in the globalizing world
  Другое История

   

  1. www.polit.nnov.ru
  2. www.kontinent.org
  3. www.wikipedia.org
  4. О множественности моделей капитализма см.: Crouch C . Capitalist Diversity and Change. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  5. David Coates, “Models of Capitalism: growth and stagnation in the modern era”
  6. Models Of Capitalism, “Debating Strengths And Weaknesses”
  7. Федотова В.Г. Глобальный капитализм: три великие трансформации: социально-философский анализ взаимоотношений экономики и общества
  8. http://www.ashgate.com/pdf/SamplePages/Globalization_The_Juggernaut_of_the_21st_Century_Intro.pdf
  9. http://www.patriotica.ru/enemy/arin_kapkan.html

• Назад
• 1
• 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
• 7
• 8
• 9
• 10
• 11
• 12
• 13
• 14
• 15
• 16
• Далее
• На последнюю страницу