Анализ проблем оценки качества электроэнергии
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n instant they may not be equal at different points in the network. In most of the cases, statistical evaluation of such phenomena may represent an important means to collect information about power quality.
2.1 Frequency variations
Large generators switch-off or important load commutation may lead to transient variations of the frequency, which are quickly compensated through the primary regulation of the generators. Then the power exchanged among interconnected grids is balanced by the generation station, which has to perform the secondary regulation. The primary regulation achieves a null average value for the power exchanges among interconnected grids due to frequency variations. Grid frequency affects the behaviour of motors (speed variations), the performance of some electronic devices where it is used for synchronisation purposes, the losses in magnetic materials and the usefulness of filters to suppress harmonics. Frequency variations are defined in terms of percentage deviation from the nominal frequency.
2.2 Voltage amplitude variations
The grid voltage continuously changes because of the commutation of the electrical devices connected to the grid. The voltage variation may be slow or quick depending on whether an overall load progressive change or a step change for a large load is happening. The grid impedance deeply affects the amount of voltage variations as a consequence of load change: the higher the impedance, the larger the variation.
2.3 Voltage fluctuations
A set of quick voltage variations is referred to as voltage fluctuation. The limit between slow and quick variations is not so definite and can range from a few seconds to one minute. Slow variations are assessed through the average value calculated over contiguous intervals of ten minutes.
Rapid variations may be single or repetitive and their amplitude usually does not exceed 6-8% of the nominal voltage. Usually electrical apparatus are able to work even in the presence of this kind of disturbance (in most of the cases corrected by voltage regulation) unless initial voltage is too low. These kinds of variations are caused by variable loads such as welding machines, arc furnaces and mills. Rapid variations of over 10% amplitude irrespective of the duration, are considered voltage dips.
2.4 Flicker
The term flicker is referred to as a systematic or casual variation of the voltage amplitude ranging from 0.9 to 1.1 p.u.. Sometimes the terms flicker and voltage fluctuations are interchangeably used. Notwithstanding, the term flicker is strictly related to the impression of instability of the visual sensation produced by a light whose intensity and spectral distribution are time variant. The amplitude of the voltage variations is usually less than 10% and the behaviour of the electrical apparatus is not affected. Notwithstanding, these small disturbances can result in lightning variations which may affect the human eye. This sensitivity is strictly dependent on the frequency of the phenomena reaching its peak value around 7-10 Hz. In this range, even a 0.3% variation of the rms voltage feeding an incandescent lamp may be perceived.
A perfect flicker compensation is not possible, but an attenuation of this phenomena can be achieved through:
an increase of the short circuit power;
a reduction of the reactive power flux;
a limitation of the motor starting currents.
2.5 Voltage dips - short interruptions
Voltage dips are bi-dimensional electromagnetic distortions which are characterised by the amplitude and duration. Voltage dip means that energy is not properly provided to loads during this event and this could result in different consequences depending on the kind of load. According to International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards, voltage dips are referred to as a sudden reduction of voltage affecting a point of the distribution network below 90% of the reference voltage. This reduction has to be recovered within 60 s. Whenever the voltage falls down to zero the event is classified as a short interruption.
The duration of a voltage dip is the interval between the instant when the voltage falls below the threshold value and the instant when the voltage rises again above the threshold. The depth of a voltage dip is the difference between the reference and the residual voltage.
The starting of large loads and faults on the network are the main causes of voltage dips. Dips caused by starting currents are less deep and longer (up to a few seconds) than the ones caused by faults on the grid (less than one second).
When large loads are switched on, the starting current could be much higher than the steady-state current. Since the feeders and the cable of a distribution system are designed for steady-state operation, the high current value is responsible for a considerable voltage drop.
2.6 Waveform variation
Harmonics If an electric quantity is distorted and periodical it can be split into three terms: the mean value calculated over one period of the considered signal, the fundamental component having the same frequency of the considered signal and the sum of the harmonic components. The amplitude of the harmonics decreases with the frequency. The representation of such amplitudes is referred to as spectrum.
As regards symmetrical waveforms (perfectly matching of the positive and negative half-waves), the even harmonics are nihil. This type of harmonics were common when half-wave rectifiers were used.
Power suppliers provide a 50 Hz sinusoidal voltage, but the current drawn by a load is not always sinusoidal. The current is not sinusoidal anymore when the load impedance varies during one period T(the load voltage/current characteristic is not linear). Such type of loads is referred to as non-linear loads. For example, the magnetising current of a transformer is deformed by a third-order harmonic because of the non-linear magnetisation curve of the machine. Rectifiers (battery chargers, welding machines, etc.), inverters, electronic starters, adjustable speed drives, discharge lamps are other examples of non-linear loads. A distorted current causes distorting voltage drops so that the resulting voltage supplying a circuit will not be sinusoidal anymore. The voltage provided is the transformer voltage minus the voltage drop across the feeder. Thus, the voltage distortion depends on the distance from the transformer and on the line impedance. In short, the voltage distortion affecting the grid at a certain location depends on the value of the short-circuit current of that point. Also, once the grid voltage is distorted a linear load absorbs a distorted current. The presence of such harmonics on the grid is responsible for detrimental effects. Moreover, at higher frequencies, iron losses (hysteresis losses and eddy current losses) as well as the losses in the cables increase. Finally, electronic equipments may experience failures due to the presence of harmonics.
Another aspect which should not be neglected is the resonance issue related to the presence of harmonics in electrical networks. In fact, in this case the amplitude of a specific harmonic may rise up to several times that of normal operation. Consequently this high-value current may seriously damage capacitors and equipments connected to the grid.
In order to prevent this kind of event, the resonance frequency of the grid at a certain point has to be known and, additionally, the insertion of well-fitted anti-resonance coils may be considered to damp the oscillatory phenomena.
2.7 Interharmonics
Interharmonics are particular harmonics whose frequency is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency. The analysis of such interharmonics has attracted increasing interest over the last few years since the massive use of power electronic equipments has caused an increment in their amplitude. They can be observed where there is at least a part not pulsating synchronously with the fundamental power system frequency. There are many loads introducing voltage or current interharmonics such as arc furnaces, welding machines and cycloconverters.
2.8 Unbalance
A three-phase system is symmetrical and balanced when voltages and currents have the same amplitude in each phase and 120. phase shifted. To assess the degree of unbalance of a three-phase system it should be split into a positive sequence component, a negative sequence component and a zero sequence component.
Normally, the voltages produced are perfectly balanced because of the characteristics of the synchronous generator. Also, the effect of some geometrical asymmetries in the delivery electric system could be neglected. So, it is possible to state that unbalanced loads drawing unbalanced currents can be considered as the main cause of unbalanced voltages.
3. Conclusions
In this article, an overview of the main disturbances affecting the electrical power system operation has been presented. Harmonic issues have been investigated more deeply. Additionally, monitoring and evaluating the power quality from the point of view of harmonic disturbances have been introduced. The necessity to have a standard method to identify the sources of electrical power quality deterioration, and to evaluate accurately the actual proportion of responsibility of each of the players involved has been underlined.
4. My research
My name is Prokhorov Anatoly. I have graduated Norilsk Institute of Industry in 2001, o